tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-49430555583359177902024-02-07T15:53:38.463+07:00Epic World HistoryExpanding the world into first global ageNina Astikahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06577360098340553565noreply@blogger.comBlogger625125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-22830651596724373842013-10-13T15:32:00.007+07:002018-09-18T09:51:30.086+07:00Ashikaga Shogunate<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/equal-rights-amendment.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Ashikaga Shogunate" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2K1ieq0FF2KOaUs__ZvtsrT3JmKp5oq1r3G5tFQ5mKejOszuI_tOl7Il9OHdU-DzqC1L5LGQ9oQW0vrnBeJYUTx01GNKy_XYyXlnfrV-H5W9WqItj0infQK60yeCQVAM1jakApW2GPun3/s1600/Ashikaga-Shogunate.jpg" title="Ashikaga Shogunate" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ashikaga Shogunate</td></tr>
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This shogunate saw the Ashikaga family dominate Japanese society, ruling for much of the period from their headquarters in the Muromachi district of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/kyoto-treaty.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Kyoto</a>. As a result the shogunate, or bakufu (“tent government,” in effect a military dictatorship), with military power controlled by the seii tai shogun or shogun (“general who subdues barbarians”)—is called either the Ashikaga or the Muromachi Shogunate. <br />
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The Ashikaga Shogunate lasted from 1336 until, officially, 1588, although the last of the family was ousted from Kyoto in 1573, and it did not have much military power after the 1520s. The period when the Ashikaga family dominated Japanese politics reached its peak when <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0231130570" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="d25518b39f8c3f273f482545cebf14dd" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Ashikaga Yoshimasa" href="http://www.amazon.com/Yoshimasa-Silver-Pavilion-Creation-Perspectives/dp/0231130570/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=d25518b39f8c3f273f482545cebf14dd&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_8198072" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Ashikaga Yoshimasa</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_8198072" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=d25518b39f8c3f273f482545cebf14dd&_cb=1481481822908" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> (1436–90) held the hereditary title of shogun (military dictator) of Japan from 1449 to 1473, although the last years of his shogunate were dominated by a succession of crises leading to the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/onin-war-in-japan.html" target="_blank">Onin War</a> (1467– 77). Yoshimasa’s period as shogun—or, strictly speaking, the time after his abdication—represented an important period for the development of Japanese fine arts.<br />
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The Ashikaga was a warrior family that had been prominent in Japanese society since the 12th century, when Yoshiyasu (d. 1157) took as his family name that of their residence in Ashikaga. They trace their ancestry back further to <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="B01M16NCKW" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="68657a9edfc9ad0b8b703327f529a44f" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Minamoto Yoshiie" href="http://www.amazon.com/Minamoto-Yoshiie-barrier-Utagawa-Kuniyoshi/dp/B01M16NCKW/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=68657a9edfc9ad0b8b703327f529a44f&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_8366649" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Minamoto Yoshiie</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_8366649" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=68657a9edfc9ad0b8b703327f529a44f&_cb=1481481861005" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> (1039–1106), also known as Hachiman Taro Yoshiie, the grandfather of Yoshiyasu. From the Seiwa Genji branch of the famous Minamoto family, he was one of the great warriors of the Later Three Years’ War that raged from 1083 to 1087. <br />
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Yoshiyasu’s son took an active part in the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/09/taira-minamoto-wars.html" target="_blank">Taira-Minamoto wars</a> of 1180–85, and six generations later Ashikaga Takauji became the first shogun, from 1338 to 1358. This came about after Emperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318–39) was exiled to the Oki Islands after being accused of plotting against the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/kamakura-shogunate.html" target="_blank">Kamakura Shogunate</a> that controlled the army. The emperor rallied some loyal forces with the aim of ending the dominance of the Kamakura family.<br />
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<b>Ashikaga Takauji</b><br />
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The emperor put his troops under the command of Ashikaga Takauji and sent them to the central provinces. The choice of Takauji was interesting, as he had taken part in plots against the shogunate in 1324 and again seven years later. Put in charge of an army to defeat the enemies of the shogun, Takauji changed sides and decided to support the emperor. He took Kyoto and ousted the shogun, ushering in what became known as the Kemmu Restoration. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/collapse-of-eastern-bloc.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Ashikaga Takauji" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6-ErxVlfLzQtUtoFuSe7PRvDwvaR-0502yQwwFVl-XCbpAZMxrdOEx4EV8VkS-f_j8nJI4Mg9kG-VTpQHgdGFop0z6DFyeRLSeOtrcYzjdN6908HuIw89zrRTmZKmZi5pVQfsZ-195YFK/s1600/Ashikaga-Takauji.jpg" title="Ashikaga Takauji" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ashikaga Takauji</td></tr>
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However, rivalries quickly broke out between Takauji and another warlord, Nitta Yoshisada. By this time the prestige of the throne was suffering after major administrative failures had clearly resulted in Go-Daigo being unable to protect his supporters. Takauji led his men to Kyoto, which he captured in July 1336, forcing Emperor Go-Daigo to flee to Yoshino in the south.<br />
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In 1338 Takauji established what became known as the Ashikaga (or Muromachi) Shogunate, based in Kyoto. Takauji controlled the army and his brother Ashikaga Tadayoshi controlled the bureaucracy, with additional responsibility for the judiciary. <br />
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The shogunate initially resulted in a split in the imperial family, with the Kyoto wing supporting it and Go-Daigo and his faction ruling from the southern court at Yoshino. This continued until 1392 when the policy of alternate succession to the throne was reintroduced. After a short period of stability, there was an attempt at an insurrection by Ashikaga Tadayoshi, who seized Kyoto in 1351. <br />
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Takauji was able to drive him out, and Tadayoshi fled to Kamakura. Takauji established a “reconciliation,” during which Tadayoshi suddenly died, probably from poisoning. This left Takauji in control of the north, but he died in 1358 and was succeeded by his son Yoshiakira (1330–67), who was shogun until his death in 1367. There was then a short period with no shogun.<br />
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<b>Ashikaga Yoshimitsu</b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/egyptian-revolution-1952.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Ashikaga Yoshimitsu" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCcPlaZ8QSpB4h5X-U-yP7iSKPLtBxKVi0yIBlsVdMjsHXN1-Ww0DFXICS_7U8LhH2qYsIQFaVzRepfPNy-5z9VlFxpBqH53AdDBx9Msa-Blia8J4dlhJDmNSHkTIOkMadh_6bNO_xJ9Yg/s1600/Ashikaga-Yoshimitsu.jpg" title="Ashikaga Yoshimitsu" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ashikaga Yoshimitsu</td></tr>
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When Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358–1408) became shogun in 1369, a position he held until 1395, he was able to develop a system by which families loyal to him held much regional power, and the office of military governor was rotated between the Hosokawa, Hatakeyama, and Shiba families. Yoshimitsu may have been planning to start a new dynasty. This theory comes from the fact that he was no longer administering territory in the name of the sovereign. <br />
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Certainly he did try to break the power of the court nobility, occasionally having them publicly perform menial tasks. When he went on long pilgrimages, he took so many nobles with him that the procession, to many onlookers, seemed to resemble an imperial parade. Yoshimitsu was able to build a rapport with Emperor Go-Kogon.<br />
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His main achievement, involving considerable diplomatic skill, was to end the Northern and Southern Courts by persuading the southern emperor to return to Kyoto in 1392, ending the schism created during his grandfather’s shogunate. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/blanche-of-castile.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Emperor Go-Kōgon" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_eDigqFq0Vlx30DBLTmDs5JsBwxOs6NdATxpBV_q5bmTER-w7KajmYJNCk7Y6xDt8xHQH7Agv0AKAGWYLlRWJLdItRErJqssEmHg3B0cUR7PfETS7RkAzP2Gc_yrXSYmtobuAVwK-6KHw/s1600/Emperor-Go-Ko%CC%84gon.jpg" title="Emperor Go-Kōgon" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Emperor Go-Kōgon</td></tr>
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Yoshimitsu also had to deal with two rebellions—the Meitoku Rebellion of Yamana Ujikiyo in 1391–92 and the Oei Rebellion of 1400 led by Ouchi Yoshihiro (1356–1400). Ouchi Yoshihiro had relied on support from pirates who had attacked Korea and also, occasionally, parts of China, but his rebellion came about when he did not want to contribute to the building of a new villa for the shogun. <br />
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He had long harbored resentment against the Ashikaga family, and in some ways the villa was merely an excuse for war. However, very quickly Ouchi Yoshihiro was betrayed by people he thought would support him, and after he was killed in battle, the rebellion ended quickly.<br />
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In order to ensure an easy succession Yoshimitsu abdicated the office of the shogun to his son Ashikaga Yoshimochi (1386–1428), who was shogun from 1395 to 1423, while he, himself, remained in Kyoto, where he made vast sums of money monopolizing the import of copper needed for the Japanese currency and negotiating a trade agreement with China in 1401.<br />
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He also created a minor controversy by sending a letter to the Ming emperor of China, which he signed with the title “king of Japan.” In his latter years Yoshimitsu became a prominent patron of the arts, supporting painters, calligraphers, potters, landscape gardeners, and flower arrangers. Many of the artists that Yoshimitsu encouraged became interested in Chinese designs and were influenced by their Chinese contemporaries—this became known as the karayo style.<br />
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The system of control established by Yoshimitsu continued under Ashikaga Yoshimochi, and his son Yoshikazu (1407–25), who was shogun from 1423–25. However, it was also a period when the Kanto region of Japan started to move out of the control of the shogunate. <br />
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Yoshikazu’s uncle Yoshinori (1394–1441) succeeded him, taking over as shogun in 1428. Yoshinori had been a Buddhist monk from childhood and ended up as leader of the Tendai sect, having to give up the life of a monk when his nephew died. Because of his background, he was determined to establish a better system of justice for the poorer people and overhauled the judiciary. <br />
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He also strengthened the shogun’s control of the military, making new appointments of people loyal to the Ashikaga family. Many nobles disliked him because he was seen as aloof and arrogant, and in 1441 a general from Honshu, Akamatsu Mitsusuke, assassinated Yoshinori. <br />
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In what became known as the Kakitsu incident, Akamatsu Mitsusuke was hunted down by supporters of the shogunate and was forced to commit suicide. Yoshinori’s oldest son, Yoshikatsu (1434–43), succeeded him and was shogun for only two years. With his death, there was no shogun from 1443 to 1449, when Yoshikatsu’s 13-year-old brother, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, became shogun.<br />
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<b>The Onin War</b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/indira-gandhi.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Onin War" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0TGAOtgkLO_c37dnSvAPRdFRsdWpcAH87Vv-qHy4RRAt_jQ9oUKyK9nUlyshFYwNZbPKjnZGTyliTBcf-Wz5RUX8VKNFAvtM8K0AcWtQJ8S_Mzshz0sk1AW44H0im73hCBOXxdZ6051lH/s1600/onin-war.jpg" title="Onin War" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Onin War</td></tr>
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Ashikaga Yoshimasa was born on January 20, 1436, at Kyoto, and when he became shogun, the shogunate was declining in importance with widespread food shortages and people dying of starvation. Yoshimasa was not that interested in politics and devoted most of his life to being a patron of the arts. <br />
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He despaired of the political situation, and without any children, when he was 29 years old he named his younger brother, Yoshimi (1439–91), as his successor and prepared for a lavish retirement. However, in 1465 he and his wife, Hino Tomiko, had a son. His wife was adamant that the boy should be the next shogun, and a conflict between supporters of the two sides—that of Yoshimasa’s wife and that of his brother—started in 1467.<br />
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Known as the Onin War, most of the fighting took place around Kyoto, where many historical buildings and temples were destroyed and vast tracts of land were devastated. More important, it showed the relative military impotence of the shogun, and the power of the military governors, and quickly changed from being a dynastic squabble to being a proxy war. <br />
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It then became a conflict between the two great warlords in western Japan, Yamana Mochitoyo, who supported the wife and infant son, and his son-in-law, Hosokawa Katsumoto, who supported Yoshimi. Both died during the war, and there was no attempt by either side to end the conflict until, finally, exhausted by the 10 years of conflict, in 1477 the fighting came to an end. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/bulgarian-empire.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnQpXsqC63qxxrIA12qv9xM2FZYV3Yvtb3RtPtSKXP8iDSfbo9MmKLYS6XtmZNvwmplgquIFS-OaB4ZjB3LhOZhkk-crGzA0BCRnjelFey4NH9g7m5uvNfHkRAXCeP2P1vEMe81rJWc-DR/s1600/Ashikaga-Yoshimasa.jpg" title="Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa</td></tr>
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By this time Yoshimasa, anxious to avoid a difficult succession, had stood down as shogun in 1473 in favor of his son. His son, Yoshihisa, was shogun from 1474 until his own death in 1489, whereupon, to heal the wounds of the Onin War, Yoshimasa named his brother’s son as the next shogun. Yoshimi’s son, Yoshitane (1466–1523), was shogun from 1490 until 1493.<br />
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In retirement, Yoshimasa moved to the Higashiyama (Eastern Hills) section of Kyoto, where he built a villa that later became the Ginkakuji (Silver Pavilion). There he developed the Japanese tea ceremony into a complicated series of ritualized steps and was a patron to many artists, potters, and actors. This flowering of the arts became known as the Higashiyama period. Yoshimasa died on January 27, 1490.<br />
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From the shogunate of Yoshitane, the family was fast losing its political power. Yoshitane’s cousin Yoshizumi (1480–1511) became shogun from 1495 to 1508 and was succeeded, after a long interregnum, by his son Yoshiharu (1511–50), who became shogun in 1522, aged 11, and remained in that position until 1547. <br />
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His son Yoshiteru (1536–65) succeeded him from 1547 to 1565, and, after his murder, was then succeeded by a cousin, Yoshihide (1540–68), who was shogun for less than a year. Yoshiteru’s brother Yoshiaki (1537–97) then became the 15th and last shogun of the Ashikaga family. He had been abbot of a Buddhist monastery at Nara, and when he became shogun renounced his life as a monk and tried to rally his family’s supporters against a sustained attack by <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/oda-nobunaga-japanese-general.html" target="_blank">Oda Nobunaga</a>. <br />
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In early 1573 Nobunaga attacked Kyoto and burned down much of the city. In another attack in August of the same year, he was finally able to drive Yoshiaki from Kyoto. Going into exile, in 1588 Yoshiaki formally abdicated as shogun, allowing <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/toyotomi-hideyoshi-japanese-general.html" target="_blank">Toyotomi Hideyoshi</a> to take over. <br />
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He then returned to his life as a Buddhist priest. In at least its last 50 years—and arguably for longer—the shogunate had become ineffective, and warlords had once again emerged, often financing their operations by not only pillaging parts of Japan itself but with piratical raids on outlying parts of Japan and Korea.<br />
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The Ashikaga Shogunate remains a controversial period of Japanese history. During the 1930s Takauji was heavily criticized in school textbooks for his disrespect to Emperor Go-Daigo. Many historians now recognize him as the man who brought some degree of stability to the country. <br />
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The attitude toward Yoshimasa has also changed. Because he concentrated so heavily on the arts, he neglected running the country. He is now recognized as heading an inept administration that saw great suffering in much of Japan. It would lead to a period of great instability that only came to an end when <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/tokugawa-ieyasu-japanese-ruler.html" target="_blank">Tokugawa Ieyasu</a> became shogun in 1603.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-60667552413658072992013-10-13T15:31:00.000+07:002018-09-18T09:58:22.986+07:00Anti-Jewish Pogroms<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/ecological-crisis-in-sahel.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Anti-Jewish Pogroms" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjILCTvJw7MHmpJ4IbvPOWQTXtHpijxn8pn_FkUQPKbzP8YQ0EkSyc3zos9UJMJX1OvKsHup0riiB94E4X28JjFC72JM5z4paQ15tgb1UShSiFL2n_St2d_f4MVorWsWycI7LGnjvEqGbqr/s1600/Anti-Pogroms.jpg" title="Anti-Jewish Pogroms" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Anti-Jewish Pogroms</td></tr>
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Jewry suffered a reversal of fate during the High Middle Ages that can only be compared to the destruction of Jerusalem 1,000 years before and the oppression by Nazis 1,000 years after. The turning point in the Middle Ages can be located in the pogroms carried out in May 1096 by gangs and mobs en route to the First Crusade. These events signaled that the stability that Jews enjoyed under Western Christendom during the first millennium was about to end. <br />
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There were telltale signs that things were about to change in the century before the First <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/crusades.html" target="_blank">Crusade</a>. Jews were accused of colluding with the Muslims to destroy the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, undertaken in fact by the mad Caliph Hakim in 1009. <br />
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For another thing, a pre-crusade campaign to cast out the Saracens from Spain in 1063 revealed that Jews did not take up the fight alongside of the Christian soldiers. In fact, Jews had prospered and integrated well under the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/08/umayyad-dynasty.html" target="_blank">Umayyads</a> of Spain.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Anti-Jewish-Riots-Aragon-Response-1391-1392-ebook/dp/B01MDVO1PG/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=103dfcc83c8b4ed377d5199ddfd2c1ca&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B01MDVO1PG&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=B01MDVO1PG" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1983298875/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=4bf154a5c105f7cad33237b6d7e10b57&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1983298875&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=1983298875" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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When <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/09/pope-urban-ii.html" target="_blank">Pope Urban II</a> issued the summons to fight for the Holy Land, the first to respond in France and Germany were paupers and peasants who had been stirred up by monks and preachers. The church hierarchy did not effectively counter a populist piety that the killing of Jews expiated sins and atoned for the crucifixion of Christ. Mobs also felt that Jews were legitimate targets because they lived within Christendom and constituted an immediate threat, whereas the Muslims were far away.<br />
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The first pogroms broke out in Rouen in French Lorraine. Jews were forced into baptism or slaughtered. Though warnings were sent out from France to beware the onslaught of the mobs, the German Jews dismissed them and trusted in their fellow countrymen. When Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless led their forces there, their brutal intentions were quickly made known. <br />
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Though many bishops and priests tried to protect them, it is estimated that up to 10,000 Jews who lived in settlements around the Rhine and Danube Rivers perished. Cities affected included Treves, Meuss, Ratisbon, and Prague. The more disciplined crusader armies took anti-Semitism with them into the Holy Land when they finally arrived and burned Jews in their synagogues. <br />
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Later crusades did not witness the same degree of bloodshed against Jews in Europe. Nonetheless, the earlier massacres unleashed bitterness and tension between the two religious groups, especially evident among the intellectuals and hierarchy, for the next few centuries. <br />
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When the Second Crusade was proclaimed, Pope Eugenius III (1145–53) suggested that Jewish moneylenders cancel the debts of Christian crusaders. Influential abbot Peter of Cluny wrote <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/louis-ix.html" target="_blank">Louis IX</a> of France that European Jews finance the war effort. A French monk named Radulph traveled around Germany— without his monastery’s approval—preaching that the Jews were the enemies of God. <br />
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At the risk of his life, the saintly and respected <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/bernard-of-clairvaux.html" target="_blank">Bernard of Clairvaux</a> confronted and condemned Radulph but still urged that Jews not collect interest on crusaders’ debts. Since Jews could not count on the protection of the church, they were forced to accept a special legal status in the eyes of the civil government. <br />
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This new identity meant that Jews now were quarantined in ghettos, bound to wear badges or unique clothing, and even kept from reading the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/01/talmud.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Talmud</a>. By the end of the Middle Ages, western European Jewry was in ruins, and Jews fled eastward to <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/poland.html" target="_blank">Poland</a> and <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/chechnya-and-russia.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Russia</a>.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-83946800467864258112013-10-13T15:19:00.000+07:002018-09-18T10:02:51.771+07:00Thomas Aquinas<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/pedro-de-valdivia.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Thomas Aquinas" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmUmHEwjQJMXECA1FxXN-wZ3ihEUJ17wKgp3YmsZjWXZkMYpcCaQyd2nvq6gBXmANOqFaLyRJ-F2NzUfsgWg8zMn98y_97hOJ72u2fBded69he07B7WzKdBlj1Jv5ziyoBvkXKGLfP1T_o/s1600/Thomas-Aquinas.jpg" title="Thomas Aquinas" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thomas Aquinas</td></tr>
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St. Thomas Aquinas was born at Roccasecca, Italy, to Count Landulf and Countess Theodora. From early on, Thomas was diligent in his studies and had a meditative mindset. He received his education from the monastery of Monte Cassino and the University of Naples. <br />
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Thomas entered the Dominican Order and then studied in Paris from 1245 under the well-known philosopher Albertus Magnus (1195–1280). He spent 10 years visiting Italy, France, and Germany. In 1248 he lectured on the Bible at a college in Cologne, Germany. He was in Paris from 1252 c.e., eventually becoming a professor of theology and writing books. <br />
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He was awarded the degree of doctor in theology in 1257. Between 1259 and 1268 he lectured as professor in the Dominican covenants of Rome and Naples. Thomas also worked at the papal court as an adviser. He was a well-known figure by the time he came to Paris in 1269.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140436324/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=FK-2myWeTtDLSanbWFWMEQ&slotNum=0&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=431d81fe9b8f260c0045c8758037684b&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0140436324&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0140436324" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1928832431/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=FK-2myWeTtDLSanbWFWMEQ&slotNum=1&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=e63f89c0412605515000a08ca94e62cc&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1928832431&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=1928832431" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span></td> </tr>
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His intellectual inquiries about the relationship between philosophy and theology made Thomas a controversial figure. His Scholasticism made him an avid reader of works pertaining to Christian theologians, Greek thinkers, Jewish philosophy, and Islamic philosophy. Thomas wrote his first book as a commentary on Sentences, a seminal book on theology by <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/peter-lombard-theologian-and-author.html" target="_blank">Peter Lombard</a> (1095–1161). <br />
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<a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/aristotle-greek-philosopher.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Aristotle</a> (384–322 b.c.e.) influenced him greatly, and his comments on Sentences contained about 2,000 references to Aristotle. Critics also associate Thomas with the doctrine of Averroës (1126–98), distinguishing between knowledge of philosophy and religion. The Dominicans sent Thomas to Naples in 1272 to organize a studium generale (a house of studies). <br />
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The pope had asked him to attend the Council of Lyon on May 1, 1274, and to bring his book Contra errores Graecorum (Against the errors of the Greeks). In spite of his deteriorating health, he started the journey in January. He died on his way there on March 7, 1274, at the <b>Cistercian abbey of Fossanova</b>.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/lorenzo-ghiberti.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Cistercian abbey of Fossanova" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgugSR88GycM-kexq3QcvpdcUDoR4uOVs06G2D2cwJDf2zfJPlYqxGKEfGoePnJxJhStHzZCM1x2BLVHu96R5LgSZgQy8SBDwL-cVBz0ETCmmRjc-DL5kWATxNNB-acQAraGh1grLc5G0PQ/s1600/Cistercian-Fossanova.jpg" title="Cistercian abbey of Fossanova" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cistercian abbey of Fossanova where Thomas Aquinas died on March 7, 1274</td></tr>
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In Christian theology the 13th century was an important time, as two schools of thought were raging with controversy. The Averroists separated philosophical truths from faith. They did not believe in divine revelations and believed that reason was paramount. The Augustinians gave faith the predominant position. For Thomas both reason and faith were important. <br />
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Both were complementary to each other, and the nature of their relationship did not conflict. He believed that the truths of philosophy and religion were gifts from God. The moderate realism of Thomas postulated that both the medium of thought and that of the senses led to knowledge of the intelligible world or the universal. Thomas was a sharp thinker, combining philosophical truths with theological postulations. His natural law accommodated the divine law. He synthesized Christian theology with the philosophy of Aristotle, the Stoics, and Ibn Rushd.<br />
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Thomas was a prolific writer, penning 60 works. His manuscripts were preserved in the libraries of Europe, and multiple copies came out after the invention of printing. The first published work of Thomas was <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="B00848G630" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="7726002b002b47c93a812d9d218a6d2c" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Secunda Secundae" href="http://www.amazon.com/Theologica-Secundae-Translated-Dominican-Province-ebook/dp/B00848G630/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=theconthist-20&linkId=7726002b002b47c93a812d9d218a6d2c&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_3405750" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Secunda Secundae</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_3405750" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=theconthist-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=7726002b002b47c93a812d9d218a6d2c&_cb=1448444135302" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> (1467). The <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="B003T9V9A4" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="4cf9e1017fa6dd57bf095e1f26f4c13c" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Summa Theologica" href="http://www.amazon.com/Theologica-Complete-Unabridged-Thomas-Aquinas-ebook/dp/B003T9V9A4/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=theconthist-20&linkId=4cf9e1017fa6dd57bf095e1f26f4c13c&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_8565357" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Summa Theologica</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_8565357" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=theconthist-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=4cf9e1017fa6dd57bf095e1f26f4c13c&_cb=1448444097123" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />, one of his best-known works, was also printed. It brought out great debate between the rational inquiry of Thomas and the Catholic doctrines. <br />
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<tr><td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1851686908/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=a26cab8575ef087b02ec5da6db47718b&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1851686908&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1851686908" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1586179683/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=565bf50b187f8f2af3014967b0243128&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1586179683&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1586179683" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0988442515/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=927f20e562216d664b2518ce2c19c586&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0988442515&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=0988442515" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td></tr>
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He defended the Christian faith in Summa de veritate catholicae fidei contra gentiles (Treatise on the truth of the Catholic faith against unbelievers). In the Quaestiones disputatae (Disputed questions), he gave his opinion on various topics. <br />
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The pernicious theory that there was only one soul for all persons was refuted brilliantly in De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas. He proved in Opusculum contra errores Graecorum that the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Father and the Son. His deep knowledge of the fathers of the church was found in <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="1905574509" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="850417a08df45aa5882f4187b8cc8322" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Catena Aurea" href="http://www.amazon.com/Catena-Aurea-Volumes-Thomas-Aquinas/dp/1905574509/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=theconthist-20&linkId=850417a08df45aa5882f4187b8cc8322&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_8589656" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Catena Aurea</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_8589656" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=theconthist-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=850417a08df45aa5882f4187b8cc8322&_cb=1448444202500" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" />.<br />
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Pope John XXII canonized Thomas Aquinas on July 18, 1323. In 1567 he was made a Doctor of the Church. The Summa Theologica became the standard textbook in theology in the syllabus of universities all over Europe. There was renewed interest in his writings after the papal bull of 1879. <br />
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Leo XIII, in his Providentissimus Deus (November 1893), took the principles behind his criticism of the sacred books from Thomas. St. Thomas Aquinas was the “Christian Aristotle” who wielded immense influence on future popes, universities, and academia. He combined the best of faith and reason with a careful synthesis.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-57467785258765326812013-10-13T15:18:00.001+07:002018-09-18T10:06:22.150+07:00Eleanor of Aquitaine<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/charles-de-gaulle.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Eleanor of Aquitaine" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5jkE9BD1MgzGkIQsBRB68Rm7hvIYORW-xQ6Aiwn9ZVOGld2fYfQXGXQ0w5LXYdxsDxWG1LUOCB3YSeJHUt_UfaHwZ4RnfuEpnKFdHdeYjrRzMFEYlTba_ws-gJuNSJGE9BjY4HjO3HXXW/s1600/Eleanor-Aquitaine.jpg" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Eleanor of Aquitaine</td></tr>
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Eleanor of Aquitaine was born in 1122 to William X, duke of Aquitaine and count of Poitou, and Aenor, daughter of the viscountess of Châtellerault. At the death of her younger brother, Eleanor became the wealthy heiress of Aquitaine. Groomed by her father, she frequently accompanied him on trips throughout his lands as he administered justice and faced down rebellious vassals. <br />
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On his deathbed in April 1137, William entrusted her to his feudal lord, the Capetian monarch Louis VI, to arrange her marriage, which he did to his 17-year-old son and heir Prince Louis. When Louis VI died in August 1137 the young prince became King Louis VII of France and Eleanor his queen. <br />
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The two were ill-matched. Louis, as the second son, had originally been groomed for a career in the church. Eleanor had been raised in one of the most sophisticated households in all of Europe. Her grandfather William IX is credited with creating the literary genre of courtly love and had welcomed minstrels, poets, and troubadours to his court.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0345434870/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=Av5CY6rkhTb3HNcQsOAs2g&slotNum=0&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=ac1c39c8f9e84fa7a1246714d5b4acb9&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0345434870&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0345434870" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1402296819/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=Av5CY6rkhTb3HNcQsOAs2g&slotNum=1&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=862c1e292da0bd11e82d75360b147d33&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1402296819&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=1402296819" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span></td> </tr>
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Eleanor was frequently able to convince Louis to intervene in affairs that concerned her own interests, to the detriment of the crown. All of this might not have mattered had Eleanor been able to provide Louis with a male heir who would have inherited the lands of both his parents. Unfortunately Eleanor bore Louis only two daughters, Marie and Alix.<br />
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The breaking point in their marriage occurred during the Second Crusade, which both Eleanor and Louis agreed to undertake in 1146 in response to the preaching of St. Bernard of Clairvaux. Their goal was to rescue the crusader-state of <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/edessa.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Edessa</a> that had fallen to the Muslims. <br />
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Presumably Eleanor’s offer of a thousand knights from Aquitaine and Poitou had helped to assuage misgivings about allowing her and numerous other noblewomen to accompany Louis and his warriors on their journey. In March 1148 the French army arrived at Antioch, just to the southwest of the kingdom of Edessa. <br />
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Here Louis and Eleanor were greeted by the queen’s uncle, Raymond of Poitiers, ruler of the principality. Rumors began to circulate about an affair between Eleanor and her uncle. When Louis rejected Raymond’s strategically sound plan of taking back Edessa in favor of marching on Jerusalem, Eleanor exploded against the king, and demanded that their marriage be annulled. <br />
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Although Louis wrenched her away from Antioch and forced her to march southward on Jerusalem, their marriage was over. The two boarded separate ships and sailed for home in 1149–50. In 1152 their marriage was annulled on grounds of consanguinity, and Eleanor regained control of her lands.<br />
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Later in 1152 she married the 18-year-old count of Anjou, Henry Plantagenet, whose extensive land holdings in France also included the duchy of Normandy and the counties of Maine and Touraine. Their marriage created a formidable counterweight to the authority and power of Louis VII of France. Moreover, in 1154 Henry made good his claim to the English throne through his mother Matilda. <br />
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In December 1154 Eleanor was crowned queen of England, consort to <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/henry-ii-king-of-england.html" target="_blank">Henry II</a> (1154–89) of the house of Plantagenet. Over the next 13 years Eleanor bore Henry five sons and three daughters, two of whom, Richard (1189–99) and John, (1199–1216) would rule England.<br />
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Initially Eleanor played a substantial role in administering their combined lands in France while Henry secured England, but as his power and authority grew, he had less use for his independent-minded queen. Disenchanted with Henry and perturbed by his numerous affairs, Eleanor left England with her two sons Richard and Geoffrey for Poitiers in 1168. <br />
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Here over the next several years she established a flourishing court that became a cultural center for troubadours and poets singing of courtly love. Meanwhile Richard and Geoffrey increasingly chaffed at their father’s unwillingness to give them real authority in ruling lands that they nominally held. <br />
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They joined their older brother Henry in revolting against Henry II in 1173, with Eleanor’s backing. Henry crushed this revolt, and for her part in it, he placed Eleanor under close house arrest in England for the next 16 years.<br />
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When Henry died in 1189 Eleanor resumed her active role in political and familial affairs. In 1189 her favorite son, <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/richard-i-king-of-england.html" target="_blank">Richard</a>, became king of England, and when he departed on the Third Crusade in December of that year, he left Eleanor as regent in England. On his return from the crusade in 1192 Richard fell into the hands of his enemy the German emperor Henry VI (1190–97), and Eleanor took charge of raising his ransom and negotiating his release. <br />
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When Richard died in 1199 she supported her youngest son, John, as his successor, undertaking a diplomatic mission to the court of Castile, and coming to his aid when war broke out between him and <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/philip-ii-augustus.html" target="_blank">Philip II Augustus</a>, king of France, in 1201. She died in March 1204 at the age of 83 and is buried alongside Richard and Henry in the nunnery at Fontevrault in Anjou. Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-3085068326176795042013-10-13T15:11:00.000+07:002018-09-18T10:10:16.075+07:00Roger Bacon<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/dalai-lama-14-th-tenzin-gyatso.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Roger Bacon" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiykn5N2zmgxYfRLDHP9n0_SqKNr_dkaxozj6xRZCPbQZ60NLakMsu0xhZ7iCVML9lqTXu2VSZuvFdQuHwEf7vZiZHVCjCiZ41e2TIyIAeJErbhtZaEl2dlN6NXP0h8JidIYLJ-ope2yNb6/s1600/Roger-bacon.jpg" title="Roger Bacon" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Roger Bacon</td></tr>
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Known as doctor mirabilis (“wonderful teacher”), Roger Bacon was born to wealthy parents at Ilchester, Somersetshire, England in 1214. He was educated at Oxford and later went to Paris in 1235. Bacon was proficient in arithmetic, astronomy, classics, geometry, and music. After receiving his master of arts, he lectured on <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/aristotle-greek-philosopher.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Aristotle</a>. Between 1247 and 1257 he was deeply involved in study of alchemy and mathematics. <br />
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He did not believe in claims made by contemporaries and loved doing scientific experiments. He argued strongly for his beliefs. Some give him credit for laying the foundation of modern science three centuries later. Bacon gave hints for making gunpowder. His experiments on the nature of light were notable. <br />
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He observed the eclipses of the Sun by means of a devise that projected images through a pinhole. A practicing alchemist, Bacon believed in the elixir of life and also tried to create the philosopher’s stone (which would change base metals into gold). His powers of observation led him to anticipate later inventions like flying machines, spectacles, steam ships, and microscopes.<br />
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Bacon was greatly influenced by the Franciscans in his student days and entered the Franciscan order in 1255. Bacon had contempt for those not sharing his views, and criticized them harshly. His works were banned by superiors, who directed their members not to publish anything without permission. He appealed to Pope Clement IV against this prohibition and it was revoked in 1266. <br />
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Within two years he finished a three-volume work, with volumes entitled Opus Majus (great work), Opus Minus (lesser work), and Opus Terilium (third work). Clement IV was a supporter of Bacon, but after his death in 1268, Pope Nicholas IV condemned his ideas. The friars, having different views from their superiors of the Franciscan order, were put behind bars. <br />
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Bacon was imprisoned in the covenant of Ancona, Italy around 1278. After 12 years he was released, and returned to England. Bacon had not changed his convictions in prison. He wrote about his sufferings in 1293 in his last book entitled Compendium studii theologiae. Some scholars do not believe that Bacon was really imprisoned.<br />
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Bacon held his views in spite of adverse circumstances. One of the greatest scholars, he was against subscribing to preconceived notions. Bacon tried his best to urge theologians to study the sciences, and called for reform in the study of theology. <br />
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He recommended the study of language in order to read original documents. Bacon saw the Bible as the focus of attention, and not a minor distinction in philosophical discourse. The medieval monk and proponent of experimental science died at Oxford on June 11, 1294, a legendary figure in the world of scholarship and science.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-91541540404198940792013-10-13T15:09:00.000+07:002019-04-23T06:52:23.092+07:00Baghdad<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/hugo-chavez.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Baghdad" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht572_N8JK5YBDy2vwTNF4MfMCGVgAquLy2fZz6bj4Kr60-8E8A6tL51r-g2Es2N9-MifdXsar_AxEigvnJWVnT1AFEmWnUFDTkh9oS08gHqZJv49V8sYkFc1bF2Ih0f-JxRx03zkRzFDZ/s1600/baghdad.jpg" title="Baghdad" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Baghdad</td></tr>
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The Abbasid dynasty founded the city of Baghdad as a new capital in 762, shortly after the overthrow of the <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/08/umayyad-dynasty.html" target="_blank">Umayyad dynasty</a>. This shift of the center of power in the Muslim world from Syria toward the Abassid support base in Persia allowed the young dynasty to establish its dominance under the leadership of the caliph, al-Mansur. <br />
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However, the move from Syria also saw the caliphate’s influence in Mediterranean affairs decline and rival dynasties emerge as far away as Spain, where the Umayyad dynasty regrouped, and as near as Egypt, from where the <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/fatimid-dynasty.html" target="_blank">Fatimid dynasty</a> dominated much of North Africa from the 10th through the 12th century.<br />
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The first two centuries of Baghdad’s history were marked by political strife as the Abassids repressed revolts; the dynasty underwent civil war from 811 to 819. During this civil war the caliph Amin besieged the city. Despite this unrest, Baghdad found itself at the center of a <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/art-and-architecture-in-golden-age-of.html" target="_blank">Muslim cultural golden age</a> during these centuries. <br />
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In the 940s a group of soldiers, the Buyid princes, who had been gaining in strength for a decade, took power in Baghdad; lacking legitimate claim to rule, they become protectors of the caliphate and ruled through Abbasid puppet caliphs.<br />
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In 1055 the Seljuk Turk Toghrulbeg came to Baghdad and ultimately relieved the caliph of the Buyid protectorate. Toghrulbeg was named sultan, and the caliph was again reduced to little more than a puppet. But the Seljuk leader’s ambitions led him to rule from outside of Baghdad, visiting only on occasion, and this would give future caliphs at least some small measure of freedom. <br />
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The Crusades and internal turmoil challenged the Seljuks’ control of the region, and the caliphs began to challenge their overlords. The breakup of Turkish rule in the late 12th century saw a renewal on a regional scale of the city’s importance, but the city and the region were continually plagued by conflicts between Sunnis and Shi’i.<br />
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<b>The Mongols</b><br />
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In faraway Mongolia, warring Turko-Mongol tribes were uniting under the leadership of one man, Temuchin. In 1206 an assembly of tribal nobility awarded him the title Genghis Khan—Universal Ruler. From central Mongolia, Genghis set out on a mission of world conquest. <br />
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He immediately began consolidating his power for an attack against the Chinese kingdoms to the south, but full control of China was far off. The Mongols would invade western Asia and establish a dynasty in Iran before they unified China under their rule.<br />
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During the early years of Mongol expansion <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/genghis-khan.html" target="_blank">Genghis Khan</a> led armies against the sultan Ala ad-Din Muhammad, Khwarazm Shah, as a punishment for his challenge to Mongol authority in the region of Central Asia. Genghis’s punishment of the Persian leader helped establish a reputation for Mongol brutality. <br />
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The caliph in Baghdad, al-Nasr, felt threatened by the onslaught against Sultan Muhammad and appealed to the Ayyubids in Syria for aid. The Ayyubids were battling the crusaders and did not send aid, but the threat of Genghis Khan never materialized. Genghis died in 1227, and <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/ogotai-khan.html" target="_blank">Ogotai Khan</a>, his son, succeeded him.<br />
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In 1232 Mongol forces had penetrated as far as Azerbaijan, and the caliph annexed Arbela in Upper Mesopotamia, possibly as a defensive measure. In 1236 the caliph mobilized his armies against the Mongols, who were moving south into Upper Mesopotamia, and in 1238 the caliph went to Baghdad’s great mosque and called for holy war against the invaders. <br />
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This time Ayyubid reinforcements arrived, but the ensuing battle was a defeat for the caliph. The Mongols withdrew deep into Persia, and terms were reached, though raids into Mesopotamia continued with accounts of the period reporting various Mongol harassments of Baghdad.<br />
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The Mongol conquest of the Middle East began during the reign of <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/mongke-khan-mongol-leader.html" target="_blank">Mongke Khan</a>. In 1252 Mongke dispatched his brother <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/hulagu-khan.html" target="_blank">Hulagu Khan</a> to take control of the region. Some sources suggest that the arrival of Hulagu in Azerbaijan was instigated by a mission by the Qadi of Qazvin, in an attempt to subdue the Isma’ilis, known as the Assassins for their frequent tactic of the same name. <br />
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The Isma’ilis operated from their stronghold in the mountainous region of northern Iran. The repression of the Isma’ilis was one of Hulagu’s first goals. Hulagu dispatched Baichu to the west to repress the Seljuk’s in Rum, and in 1256 Mongol forces defeated the sultan and recognized his younger brother, establishing Mongol overlordship of Rum. In the same year, the Mongols completed their mission against the Isma’ilis, destroying the last of their mountain strongholds and executing their leader, Khurshah.<br />
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Having secured his base and the vicinity to its west, Hulagu focused his attention on the caliphate in Baghdad. Hulagu sought to dominate both Baghdad and its caliph, despite their dramatic decline in prestige. The court of the caliph, al-Musta‘sim, was divided over how to respond. <br />
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The caliph, presented with an ultimatum, could surrender—saving his life, his position, and his city—or resist. Indecision left al-Musta‘sim largely unprepared for the onslaught that would follow his disregard and disrespect of Hulagu and his armies. The Mongol forces besieged the city for several weeks before storming it on February 6, 1258. <br />
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The damage to the city was extensive. Al-Musta‘sim, his sons, and much of their entourage were killed; as it was against Mongol belief to shed royal blood on the ground, the caliph was rolled into a carpet and trampled to death by horses. Al-Musta‘sim was the last Abbasid caliph of Baghdad.<br />
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From Baghdad, Hulagu’s forces moved into northern Syria, taking Aleppo in January of 1260. The Ayyubid ruler in Damascus, An-Nasir Yusuf, fled his capital, and the city surrendered to Hulagu’s general Kitbuqa. Hebron, Jerusalem, and Ashkalon were raided, and various Ayyubid princes submitted to the invaders. Again, much of the Mongol army was unilaterally withdrawn to Azerbaijan, where Maragheh was chosen as the capital of the new Il-Khanate (one of four khanates of the Mongol Empire). <br />
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The Ayyubids’s conquest by the Mongols marked the end of their dynasty, as they had already been replaced in Egypt by the Mamluk dynasty. General Kitbuqa remained to solidify the new conquests in Syria, while Hulagu became embroiled in the Mongol succession crisis and began to battle the Golden Horde to his north.<br />
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In the eastern Mediterranean region the crusaders in Jerusalem were not prepared to surrender to the Mongols and issued calls for reinforcements to the western European kingdoms, while they temporarily tried to appease Kitbuqa. When the crusaders did not dismantle their fortresses, however, Kitbuqa retaliated, sacking Sidon in August 1260. <br />
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The crusaders responded by allowing the <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/mamluk-dynasties-in-egypt.html" target="_blank">Mamluks of Egypt</a> to dispatch troops through their territory and even provided the Muslim forces with supplies to battle the Mongols. In September 1260 the Egyptian army defeated the Mongols in Galilee, and Kitbuqa was either killed in the battle or executed after his defeat.<br />
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The Il-Khanid Mongols retreated beyond the Euphrates to their power base. Within the Il-Khanate, Hulagu and his son Abaqa would enjoy stability despite threats at the border. The Il-Khanids continued to work diplomatically against their Mamluk enemies in Syria, at times approaching the crusaders to propose coordinated attacks. <br />
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In 1299 Ghazan Khan, a Muslim convert, attacked the Mamluk forces, which retreated to Egypt in defeat. Syria and Palestine were briefly reoccupied until Ghazan withdrew to Mesopotamia, and it was not until 1320 that the Mongols made peace with the Mamluks. After the death of Abu Sa‘id in 1235, the Il-Khanate disintegrated into rival, mostly non-Mongol, dynasties. <br />
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The Mongol leader <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/09/timurlane-tamerlane.html" target="_blank">Timurlane</a> emerged as a great force in the region at the end of the 14th century, regaining Mongol control of Persia and doing battle as far east as the <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Ottoman Empire</a>. But Timurlane’s death in 1405 saw the Mongolian empire in Persia again disintegrate and effectively ended Mongolian influence in the region of the Middle East.<br />
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The immediate and lasting effects of the Mongols in the Middle East are varied in degree. The Mongol conquest of Hulagu ended two institutions of Islamic rule, finally ending the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad and Ayyubid dynasty, the realm of which was already confined to Syria and parts of Palestine. This allowed Mamluk rule to fill the power vacuum. <br />
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A century and a half later that power vacuum would be re-created by Timurlane’s temporary conquests and the subsequent disintegration of Mongol rule in the Middle East following his death, only to be filled by the Ottomans. Culturally, the impact of the Mongols was minimal, with the exception of Persia, to which area their lasting presence in western Asia was confined. It is in the period of the Il-Khanate that the greatest impact of far eastern culture on Persia is witnessed.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-67913471882504039722013-10-13T15:03:00.000+07:002017-02-26T01:26:40.365+07:00Averroës<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/06/galveston-flood.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Averroës statue in Cordoba, Spain" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQKiFWSG1T7PB-LsE7azEoYeMn__fOFPSRDqiNq2NXzIU0fP3guUmrajuOIKCslqgQgT9H_5CMIjP-3lcd-4Q7s49RdfxYfgDWxUyRTrRYhO2mOPoT715AncznHLQh3QqYldtLF6lbEEdH/s1600/Averroe%25CC%2588s-statue.jpg" title="Averroës statue in Cordoba, Spain" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Averroës statue in Cordoba, Spain</td></tr>
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Abu Al-Walid Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Rushd, Ibn Rushd for short, or Averroës, as he is known to the West, was born in Córdoba (Qurtuba), Spain, in 1126 to a family of distinguished Andalusian scholar-jurists. Ibn Rushd was to become a famous philosopher, theologian, physician, and royal consultant. He was a scholar of the natural sciences, namely biology, astronomy, medicine, physics, and the Qur’anic sciences.<br />
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His grandfather, after whom he was named, was a renowned chief justice (qadi) in Córdoba and an authority on Malikite jurisprudence, having written two famous books on the subject. At the same time, he was the imam of the Great Mosque of Córdoba. Ibn Rushd’s father was also a judge. Having grown up in a family of scholars, Ibn Rushd received an excellent education in Córdoba in linguistics, Islamic jurisprudence, and theology. <br />
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He became very knowledgeable in these subjects, evident through his many writings. He was especially competent in the subject of khilaf, which dealt with controversies in legal sciences. Ibn Rushd had profound knowledge of Aristotelian philosophy, possibly introduced to the subject by one of his teachers or one of the leading scholars in Córdoba. <br />
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He was educated in medicine and accomplished a major work known as the Al-Kulliyat fi‘l tibb translated as General Medicine in 1169. Ibn Rushd’s writings were so widely celebrated at one time that it was claimed that medieval Islamic philosophy was an earlier version of the European Enlightenment.<br />
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In 1153 Ibn Rushd moved to Marrakech, where he met the Almohad ruler Abu Ya’qub Yusuf, who was very impressed with the young Ibn Rushd’s intellect and deep knowledge of philosophy. It is interesting to note that Ibn Rushd was initially reluctant to reveal the extent of his knowledge to the prince because at the time strict Muslim leaders frowned on philosophy, which was considered anti-Islamic. <br />
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Ibn Rushd had to fight against this prevalent belief by asserting that philosophy could be compatible with religion, if both were properly understood. He had nothing to fear with regards to the Almohad prince, who admired his wide knowledge.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2016/05/marcus-garvey.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoVEp8pRqU6mU1KC-iVDYBoDKu-560EuziTae_Pa8-Z7xIkaFMoWSgXeYArfF_yu453YFZkJYJVI9d52oA5IDdfFsLWU2EWQkgbYrTc3nkLbQVlL67jbkml-OkRPuDnpaGkq1yF0ENpqOt/s1600/Averroe%25CC%2588s.jpg" width="470" /></a></div><br />
In fact, the ruler consulted Ibn Rushd on philosophical matters from then on and became his patron. It was also because of Abu Ya’qub’s prompting that Ibn Rushd summarized the works of Aristotle in a clear manner. During this time he also provided detailed commentaries of his Aristotelian philosophy, such that he is popularly known as the Commentator of Aristotle.<br />
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In Marrakech, Ibn Rushd remained active in other areas beside writing and philosophy. He also made astronomical observations. In 1182 he was appointed chief physician in Marrakech. He then became the chief justice in Córdoba. In 1195 Ibn Rushd fell out of favor with the new Almohad prince during the latter years of his reign. His works were considered contrary to religion, and the Caliph passed edicts forbidding their study. He was banished to Lucena near Córdoba but later returned to Marrakech. He died soon after in December 1198.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-7873068436500669062013-10-13T15:01:00.001+07:002018-09-18T10:25:06.253+07:00Avignonese Papacy<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/muhammad-ayub-khan.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Avignonese Papacy" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXlYCYembJ-ByN_Cfk1rcwUmC1-llUQXaAvIaQoIU0GHw8VkNYWqzOABCB4EEbINQzBBDaDYeKR7U6PvUE4qQhtX4oqLwz5ms8yhOBXetPI_N2cuHnpYbkTYY_PFtoK_QvjCVFo-MlHiwT/s1600/Avignonese-Papacy.jpg" title="Avignonese Papacy" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Avignonese Papacy</td></tr>
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The Avignonese papacy (1304–78) and the Great Schism (1378–1414) are regarded as two of the most dramatic events in the history of Christianity that further undermined and diminished the prestige of the papacy and the authority of the Western Latin Church. <br />
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The first episode refers to the nearly century-long pontificate of eight popes, who from the beginning of the 14th century until 1378 ruled the Christian world from the French town of Avignon, being held captive by <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/philip-iv-king-of-france.html" target="_blank">Philip IV the Fair</a>; because of its forced nature, the Avignonese papacy is also called the Avignonese Captivity, or Exile.<br />
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Historians attribute the cause of the Avignonese Exile of the papacy to the earlier conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and the young French king Philip the Fair in the preceding century, when the king and the pope were struggling to proclaim their rule over Europe. In the center of the conflict stood new military taxes the king levied on French monasteries, requiring new subsidies to fight his wars with the English. <br />
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Boniface rejected the king’s claims for financing his army on account of the church in the bull Clericis laicos from 1290 and later paid for his stubbornness with his own life, literally terrified to death by the king’s chancellor William of Nogaret. <br />
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Boniface’s direct successor, Benedict XI (1303–04), did not live long enough to pacify the spirits, supposedly having been poisoned by an unidentified monk; a new pope, old and gravely ill, Bertrand de Got, who assumed the name Clement V, led the papacy into exile. <br />
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Residing in France at the time of his election, weakened by what was likely cancer, and discouraged by the fate of his predecessor, Clement V capitulated to Philip’s demands that he should be crowned at Lyon. He established the tradition of the Avignonese papacy, never setting foot in the ancient city of Rome.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgttqZHaXcDIt2SGX7bEEiI3fZ1WTkw_HDfaUBcAr9V7XHDIZ6Bgzci9KXjWddCQMwW1QpQvs_rsS71L_Ts9oKOmhKGwU_NrYRZFuVmC-BYecZY9xg938MAdAt7_mo91idXaUS6eslL4Vav/s1600/John-XXII.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="Pope John XXII" border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="463" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgttqZHaXcDIt2SGX7bEEiI3fZ1WTkw_HDfaUBcAr9V7XHDIZ6Bgzci9KXjWddCQMwW1QpQvs_rsS71L_Ts9oKOmhKGwU_NrYRZFuVmC-BYecZY9xg938MAdAt7_mo91idXaUS6eslL4Vav/s1600/John-XXII.jpg" title="Pope John XXII" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pope John XXII</td></tr>
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Clement’s Avignon successors (seven popes, among whom the most famous were John XXII and Benedict XII) all remained loyal to the French rulers, playing whenever necessary against the German emperor and the English, which outwardly may have been seen as an ordinary state of affairs had it not been for the fact of direct influence the French kings exercised in the curia. <br />
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Throughout the 14th century the Avignonese papacy was continuously showing signs of decline of papal authority, which was becoming increasingly undermined by the feudal monarchy. In 1312 the papacy surrendered to the will of Philp IV and dismissed the Order of <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/knights-templar-knights-hospitallers.html" target="_blank">the Templars</a>, famous for its wealth, with thousands of its members accused of heresy, witchcraft, and sodomy and all its treasures confiscated by the crown. <br />
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The fiscal oppression of the curia (chiefly through control over the sale of benefices and indulgences but also over tithes and annates) became more amplified during the Avignonese papacy, despite the heavy French presence in the College of Cardinals (seven out of eight Avignonese popes and almost all of the important cardinals were Frenchmen by the middle of 14th century).<br />
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In due course the popes built themselves a fortified palace behind the walls of Avignon and lived there surrounded by luxury in the midst of magnificent artificial gardens. The luxurious lifestyle of the popes was subject to constant complaints and gossip. Contemporaries, including such important thinkers as Petrarch, Marsilius of Padua, and Catherine of Siena, relentlessly criticized the Avignonese popes. <br />
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The image of the papacy during those years changed sharply, having lost its unconditional spiritual authority and its control over the brethren. Petrarch called the Avignonese papacy “the Babylonian Captivity of the Church” and Avignon popes “wolves in shepherds’ clothing.” <br />
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The Avignonese papacy was detested by most social sectors—from peasants who suffered the ever-increasing taxation to intellectuals and theologians who wrote against the moral and spiritual degradation of the Holy Office. In the next centuries the Avignonese papacy was described as totally deprived of spirituality. <br />
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Subservience to a secular ruler, nepotism, and rapacity of the “puppet-popes” seriously undermined the reputation of papacy in the eyes of Europe, marking at the same time the end of the reign of Church Universal and the beginning of a new epoch, where ultimate power belonged with the national ruler.<br />
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The Avignon church underwent a complete makeover. Despite criticisms, almost all Avignon popes undertook serious attempts at reform. They created a sophisticated and effective administration that surpassed anything previously known in the European states. The popes’ involvement in secular politics also grew during these years, despite the forced capitulation to France. <br />
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Both developments effectively turned the church into a modern, secularized, and politicized <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/organization.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">organization</a>. The last years of the popes’ stay at Avignon are also marked by their recurring attempts to strengthen their position in Italy. <br />
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Quite unsuccessfully they tried to turn the outcome of the revolt of Cola di Rienzo in 1347 to their favor, but even after this failure popes continued to maintain close economic and political relations with Italy. Their final success and return to Rome is indebted to the activity of Cardinal Albornoz and Pope Urban V, who gave constitution to the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/papal-states.html" target="_blank">Papal States</a>. <br />
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Taking advantage of the difficulties France was experiencing during the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/hundred-years-war.html" target="_blank">Hundred Years’ War</a> (1337–1453), Pope Gregory XI (1370–78) transferred the papal residence back to Rome in 1378, dying just a few months after this historic reunion of the church with its ancient capital. This move, however, was attempted too late to save the papacy from disaster: Its return was blackened by the shadow of the Great Schism.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/bulgar-invasions.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Pope Gregory XI transferred the papal residence back to Rome in 1378" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhd5FnN1lGFis9HE9If12j8Q7ZcGCM09xVnnK8IYxGcHFnxiwHqIwXJBr8vUg4ey2UjDbe0IQ7BFV6DjKmip6suLrREuu4UvvEuIU8oUzi7yVGt7xm1-tP9Lp0T-9bRI9jYdTSYAG6OUKvg/s1600/back-Rome.jpg" title="Pope Gregory XI transferred the papal residence back to Rome in 1378" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pope Gregory XI transferred the papal residence back to Rome in 1378</td></tr>
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Soon after Gregory XI died, the Roman people, fearing that a new pope might leave them for France once again, gathered under the walls of the conclave, demanding election of an Italian to the Holy See. Cardinals, the majority of whom were Frenchmen, chose the archbishop of Bari, a Neapolitan, Bartholomew Prignano, to be elected the next pope. He accepted the Holy Office, taking the name of Urban VI. No doubt that Prignano, who had previously held a position of a vice chancellor of the curia, seemed an excellent choice to the cardinals.<br />
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They were confident they could control the “little archbishop” (as they nicknamed their candidate), who would be grateful for this unexpected promotion. Later the cardinals would announce that they had elected Prignano under threats and for fear of the reaction of the angry mob that was raging on the streets surrounding the palace during the election.<br />
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From the very start the pontificate of the new pope was stained with a most bitter struggle with the cardinals and members of the curia of non-Italian origin. Harsh reform measures of the new pontiff, who was irritated at the slightest pretext, and physically assaulted cardinals on several occasions (publicly announcing their lifestyle of pomposity and splendor as sinful), caused the French party to flee from Rome. <br />
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Urban soon found himself at daggers drawn with everyone around him, managing to deprive the Holy See of a number of its most loyal supporters, such as Joanna, queen of Naples; her husband, Duke Otto of Brunswick; and the powerful duke of Fondi, not to mention the king of France. <br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/boniface.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Pope Clement VII" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFpTDXNnBvOktwLTNcPrkKxfy5iIidZGEnEldv3kDI-OTbtoTVMHhy7UwIH9hi8-M6HKTCFxQAqoO7aeWQu5YSDEZOIlBf4qj0k7CFJ8C2_ICDPi2m_2esbZjEd-OxgscUs108I6MvP1t2/s1600/Clement-VII.jpg" title="Pope Clement VII" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pope Clement VII</td></tr>
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On August 9, 1378, under a pretext that Urban’s appointment was forced, the conclave of the fugitive cardinals issued a lengthy document, entitled Declaratio, where they declared the election invalid and the Holy Office vacant. At the same sitting they unanimously voted for the Gallic cardinal Robert of Geneva, who assumed the office under the name of <b>Clement VII</b> (1378–94), thus becoming an “anti-pope.”<br />
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The following 40 years were characterized by almost constant warfare between pope and anti-pope, in which the Papal States were the chief playground. The schism left no one sitting on the fence. Having unparalleled impact on political allegiances, it reshaped European geopolitics, changing cultural boundaries and paving the way for the upcoming <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/reformation.html" target="_blank">Reformation</a>.<br />
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With every passing year the split went deeper. On the side of the “French” Pope Clement VII fought such powerful allies as the king of France, the kings of Naples and Scotland, and half of the rulers of Germany; Urban was supported by England, Portugal, and Hungary. <br />
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The legal pope continued to be tactless and inconsiderate to his allies, and gradually his authority grew weak. Appointing new cardinals to replace the rebels was not a sufficient measure to keep discipline among the supporters; constantly suspecting treachery, Urban did not hesitate to send several cardinals to be executed for “disobedience” to his will. <br />
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Isolated and defeated in most of his battles, Urban locked himself up in his castle—mainly to hide from the French king who had announced a huge prize for the pope’s head. In 1389 Urban VI came back to Rome, where he died, according to one source, surrounded by followers; according to another, he was poisoned by enemies.<br />
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Soon after Urban’s funeral it became clear that even the disappearance of one of the ruling pontiffs would not save the situation—the “Italian” party immediately appointed a successor. Thus receiving a precedent, the schism continued—Clement VII was succeeded by Benedict XIII (from 1394); Urban VI by Boniface IX (1389–1404), Innocent VII (1404–06), and Gregory XII (from 1406). <br />
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The conflict deteriorated when the Council of Pisa in 1409 deposed both Benedict XIII and Gregory XII, selecting new pope Alexander V (1409–10). The deposed popes refused to recognize the decision of the Council, and the Holy See became occupied by three popes at once. <br />
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This development was very favorable to the heretical movements that rose in large quantities all across Europe, preaching noninstitutional evangelism and unbalancing the old feudal system. Secular lords and princes who supported the establishment and the unity of the church were greatly concerned, despite the fact that the decrease in the papal authority contributed to consolidation of power in the hands of secular rulers.<br />
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The schism continued well into the 15th century, until, finally, the Council of Constance (1414–18) put an end to it, having deposed three popes at once: John XXIII (successor of Alexander V), Gregory XII, and Benedict XIII, and selecting, to the great relief of everyone involved, a single pontiff—Martin V (1417–31).Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-22085826254902916892013-10-13T14:59:00.000+07:002016-03-20T12:53:00.951+07:00Al-Azhar<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/berlin-blockadeairlift.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" rel="nofollow" target="blank"><img alt="Al-Azhar" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDuSPEkJuujAyaRkoulKx51EVpVH4ey-8JVlA6-FjVJTimxcNtgyu59o7gYFZXlV2cw9ZAb9W3PT18oITL0NrJgn1eGIJcxXmYZ6lqV6PNvcC_b43i7UAlmpgvQyEsiShNT6Ts2ona0uiF/s1600/Al-Azhar.jpg" title="Al-Azhar" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Al-Azhar</td></tr>
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<a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/fatimid-dynasty.html" target="_blank">The Fatimids</a> established al-Azhar, one of the oldest universities in the world, in Cairo in 970. Built around a large mosque with an open courtyard surrounded by columned walkways where classes were taught, al-Azhar quickly became one of the premier educational centers in the entire Islamic world, attracting students from Asia, Africa, and, in subsequent centuries, the Western Hemisphere. <br />
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Originally, the university focused on the tenets of the Isma’ili sect of Islam followed by the Fatimid rulers, but over the following centuries the university became a center for orthodox Sunni belief. By the 1600s the Shaykh al-Azhar, leader of al-Azhar, was chosen from among the shaykhs of the university. <br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/ghana-mali-and-songhai.html" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="A peek inside Al-Azhar Mosque and University" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlm8LseciRYAvn9vDoNTAXENkUi5-HCPrtePqtZUEK0PBepA-1iihDRK08ecyKa9fz4Yc2QBJVhQPO2agJZ6V0yW3mMisSl1pIcaBzHxUUy9tnotdQLlWL9HYivAQxc0FIQQRrq43nSd9V/s1600/al-Azhar.jpg" title="A peek inside Al-Azhar Mosque and University nowdays" width="230" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A peek inside Al-Azhar Mosque <br />
and University nowdays</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Generations of legal scholars and judges were educated in theology and Islamic law at al-Azhar. In the 15th century c.e., the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/mamluk-dynasties-in-egypt.html" target="_blank">Mamluk</a> sultan Qaitbey financed the construction of an inner gate and elaborate minaret overlooking the courtyard. <br />
<br />
Following sultans added further buildings and ornamentation to the sprawling complex, including living quarters for students, libraries, and the mosque. After the 1952 c.e. revolution in Egypt, <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/gamal-abdel-nasser-egyptian-president.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Gamal Nasser</a> modernized and instituted major reforms including the creation of a College of Islamic Women and the addition of colleges in medicine and engineering.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-2216388703502415952013-10-13T14:56:00.000+07:002018-09-18T10:40:34.161+07:00Thomas Becket (Thomas à Becket)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/contra-war-nicaragua-1980s.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Thomas Becket (Thomas à Becket)" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoWZBACMkq5gyS4tuanG32IIqcpW35iPf9c2cYyQLNRzgCIWNSfxiqvvwYsvXusrtS6gTrP4PVe_AJbob5EQIuB4ixvAvZXRI1_T8r_jpVnRyMLR43V27_kzu2YHEKXD4N5c62KOc8J3_I/s1600/Thomas-Becket.jpg" title="Thomas Becket (Thomas à Becket)" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thomas Becket (Thomas à Becket)</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
Saint Thomas Becket was the archbishop of Canterbury in England during the reign of King <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/henry-ii-king-of-england.html" target="_blank">Henry II</a>. He was the son of Gilbert Becket, who was born in Rouen, but became a merchant in London. Becket received an excellent education despite his middle-class origins. <br />
<br />
He completed his degree at the University of Paris and then studied law at Bologna and Auxerre. Theobald of Bec, archbishop of Canterbury since 1139, made him deacon and assistant archbishop of Canterbury. Becket and Henry became close friends and spent considerable time together. Henry made Becket chancellor. <br />
<br />
Theobald was seriously concerned that the trappings of the royal lifestyle would turn Becket against the needs of the church. Upon Theobald’s death in 1163, Henry offered Becket the position of archbishop of Canterbury, but he initially declined, realizing it would cause great havoc between Henry and himself.<br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Thomas-Becket-Warrior-Priest-900-Year-Old/dp/0141044675/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=63ac1c0e79b4da81873d86399aa35167&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0141044675&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0141044675" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B0031ZG0WI/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=c2d4665280023ba229292b1e552b7eaa&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B0031ZG0WI&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=B0031ZG0WI" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span></td> </tr>
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Once Becket became archbishop in 1164, he set aside the hedonistic lifestyle, became excessively ascetic, and resigned as chancellor. His efforts focused on the church rather than on the interests of the man who had befriended and promoted him. In 1163 at the Council of Westminster, Henry passed a law that would try “criminous clerks” who had already been tried by the ecclesiastical courts. <br />
<br />
Some of the canonical laws were ambiguous, imprecise, and contradictory, and Henry wanted clearly stated laws that would govern accurately. Becket disagreed, but withdrew his dissent when Pope Alexander III (pope from 1159 to 1181) pressured him. Henry then implemented the constitutions of Clarendon to which Becket orally agreed. The constitutions accurately reflected traditional church and state relations, which Henry II wished to guarantee. <br />
<br />
When Becket discovered that some of the sections would reduce ecclesiastical power, he vehemently objected to the changes. However, several of the Crown’s practices were quite divergent from canon law, so that Alexander refused to assent. Becket had little choice but to admit publicly that he had committed perjury regarding the Constitution of Clarendon.<br />
<br />
Becket was forced to appear at the Council of Northampton in October 1164 and was charged with misappropriating funds during his chancellorship. He quickly contravened the Constitutions of Clarendon, denying its jurisdiction and declaring that the church and the pope had greater jurisdiction than the Constitutions. Becket had no option but to flee abroad. <br />
<br />
While Becket lived in exile for six years, he garnered scant support from Alexander because the pope and Henry had their own disagreements to solve. Yet both Henry and Becket went to extremes to maintain their quarrel.<br />
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The situation was exacerbated when Henry, who was quite ill, had his son and heir, Henry the Younger, (1155–83) crowned as joint king by the archbishop of York in June 1170; this was a direct violation of customary practices. Becket threatened an interdict with Alexander’s support and then aggravated the situation by suspending and excommunicating the bishops who had partaken in the coronation. <br />
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The irate Henry then uttered the phrase “Will no one rid me of this troublesome priest?” Four knights took this phrase literally, traveled to Canterbury, and murdered Becket on December 29, 1170. This event astonished and repulsed Christians everywhere. Becket was canonized three years later; his tomb became a well-visited shrine. In 1174 Henry was forced to offer penance publicly at Becket’s tomb.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-18915332968420346792013-10-13T14:46:00.000+07:002017-01-05T21:50:55.496+07:00Benin<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/vo-nguyen-giap.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="kingdom of Benin" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5K1rSEH68YqGCB2sa_0UaqdQXRFHaNxVdmXPJ-D9u3InCHUsX5le-2uYhmdVZVe7zxS_2lSnPWI5x0G7jj214M0AZSs1hCKeT8PTuhCz3zUzv4yssS5ro0BowCKcQLDEZRTcGUcAcNhhh/s1600/kingdom-benin.jpg" title="kingdom of Benin" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">kingdom of Benin</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
Extending at its peak from the Niger River in the east to the port of Lagos on the western coast, Benin was a dynastic kingdom in what is now southern <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/08/nigeria.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nigeria</a>, in the West African forested region. Present-day Benin City (called Ibinu; it was founded in 1180) was once where the kingdom was centered, and the modern Benin kings trace their lineage to its original dynasties.<br />
<br />
Early southern Nigeria had been inhabited since 9000 b.c.e., with the <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0316399787" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="33c8bf318a21887915d74f60c2c2e2e2" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Iron Age" href="http://www.amazon.com/Age-Iron-Angus-Watson/dp/0316399787/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=33c8bf318a21887915d74f60c2c2e2e2&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_8821317" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Iron Age</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_8821317" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=33c8bf318a21887915d74f60c2c2e2e2&_cb=1483627755381" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> beginning around the second century b.c.e. <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0132137143" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="e47d6d7eca3acf681b2f8dc2618bb738" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Ironworking" href="http://www.amazon.com/Ironworking-Level-2nd-Contren-Learning/dp/0132137143/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=e47d6d7eca3acf681b2f8dc2618bb738&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_1479846" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Ironworking</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_1479846" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=e47d6d7eca3acf681b2f8dc2618bb738&_cb=1483627740512" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> appears to have displaced Neolithic techniques without an intermediate bronze period, suggesting that iron smelting was probably introduced by outsiders, perhaps the Berbers of early antiquity. <br />
<br />
There is little <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/information-and-analytics.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">information</a> about the first millennium c.e. in the area, other than the prosperity and subsequent disappearance from the historical record of the Nok people in what is now northeastern Nigeria. The founders of the Benin kingdom were the Bini (an ethnic subgroup of the Edo language group to which many modern inhabitants belong), but they or their ruling dynasties had a significant relationship to the <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="2359260057" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="80e769335a412781b44aa3d7366bf475" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Yoruba people" href="http://www.amazon.com/History-Yoruba-Stephen-Adebanji-Akintoye/dp/2359260057/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=epichistory-20&linkId=80e769335a412781b44aa3d7366bf475&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_897146" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Yoruba people</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_897146" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=epichistory-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=80e769335a412781b44aa3d7366bf475&_cb=1483627774762" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> of Ife.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1477718842/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1477718842&linkCode=as2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=ZTFRZ2PI53RPTPP4" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1477718842&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1477718842" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1530000505/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=a1210afc954a78ace927d7348a2fd2d4" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1530000505&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&l=li3&o=1&a=1530000505" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><br />
According to one version of the founding of Benin, people called for the Ife prince Oranmiyan to come to their aid and displace the tyrannical rule of the Ogisos dynasty, which founded the city of Ibinu and had ruled the area for the previous few centuries or more (36 Ogiso dynastic rulers are known). Another version omits the plea for help, painting Oranmiyan as a simple invader.<br />
<br />
At the time of the Ife incursion—whether it was invited or not—most of the power in Benin rested in the hands of the council of chiefs, the uzama. Beginning with Oranmiyan’s son Eweka (1180–1246), the uzama was presided over by the oba, a war leader who over time became a more powerful monarch with religious significance. As the oba became paramount, the kingdom became an empire. <br />
<br />
Beginning with Ewuare (1440–73), the title of oba became a hereditary one, while Ibinu was rebuilt with military fortifications in order to protect the Benin center of power, as Ewuare’s forces expanded to conquer the lands surrounding them. The port of Lagos was established around this time, and diplomatic and trade relations began with Europe, beginning with the Portuguese. Early trade was primarily in ivory, pepper, and palm oil, before the slave trade became prominent.<br />
<br />
The kingdom of Benin is not related to the modern day Republic of Benin, except insofar as that nation took its name in 1975 from the Bight of Benin, the bay along which both entities are or were situated.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-59882031698152874542013-10-12T21:40:00.001+07:002019-01-12T06:06:13.739+07:00Bantu<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://mafiasome.blogspot.com/2015/05/roger-terrible-touhy.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bantu village" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4rWZLxuT_oGVZlnS86hFXicAiOdWHkx0_SEgphk9wcnI4lEBOaNdQckx64q_56yKF7QgofxU3g9GF9nPxgaRt6WqLTNnX3kqiDKG1dqr4xwNZJ62Sr7S4ZZsTa9sbSz5UuKIXwCPfuA3w/s1600/bantu.jpg" title="Bantu village" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bantu village</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
The Bantu people of the African continent include some 400 different ethnic groups that cover most of sub-Saharan Africa and speak a tongue from a common language group. The first time the word Bantu (meaning “people” in many Bantu languages) was used in its current sense was by Dr. Wilhelm Bleek in his book A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages (1862). <br />
<br />
Up to that point, few linguists had tried to draw similarities between the different languages in Africa on such a wide scale. Much of what is known about Africa before the 11th century has been surmised by linguistic analysis, which, along with recent archaeology, has shown a clear picture of society and life in prehistoric Africa.<br />
<br />
Before the spread of the Bantu much of central and southern Africa is believed to have been populated by the Khoisan-speaking people who still exist around the Kalahari Desert in modern-day Namibia and Botswana, and also in some isolated pockets of modern-day Tanzania. <br />
<br />
<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199342458/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=9afbb3c165349bb270df5a7285f8c240&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0199342458&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0199342458" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Bantu-Art-Culture-Marvin-Koyo/dp/1984527991/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=f756d9db5e02db010c23fb10cfc4a548&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1984527991&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=1984527991" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><br />
There were (and still are) pygmies in Central Africa, and the northern and northeastern parts of Africa were dominated by people who spoke Afro-Asiatic languages, who have retained their identity from the Bantu. Gradually from the first millennium b.c.e. to the first millennium c.e., the Bantu spread out throughout much of the African continent.<br />
<br />
The origins of the Bantu were first raised by Joseph H. Greenberg (1915–2001) in 1963, based on linguistic theories. Using dictionaries and work lists of these languages, he was able to isolate the 500 different distinct languages of the Bantu subgroup. <br />
<br />
Many showed regional and geographical variations—including the names of crops and/or animals not found elsewhere in Africa— and Greenberg’s thesis was that there was an original language, which he called Proto-Bantu, from which the others were derived. As the languages spoken in the southeastern part of Nigeria, and along the border with Cameroon, contain more words similar to those used elsewhere in the continent, and that the Bantu languages spoken further away have more variations, he concluded that the Bantu had their origins along the modern-day Nigeria-Cameroon border. <br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/10/augusto-cesar-sandino.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Bantu" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEistRZPw2A_rKSex9M4H2ESctOO4mAapOuC5HpOV2o71XMd25tZmz0QXbQY1GKUh8CYmV0_Jv0RR2ue1SZoZIO7Eh3Uya6v5OmXqNrTG_hyphenhyphengzaq9g16d6DZ2KkWBHBrpzVrmQci6rOK7H6Z/s1600/bantu.gif" title="Bantu" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bantu</td></tr>
</tbody></table>However, the theories of Greenberg were quickly challenged by Malcolm Guthrie, whose research pointed to the Bantu language having originated in Zambia and the southern part of modernday <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/democratic-republic-of-congo-zaire.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>.<br />
<br />
If the origins of the Bantu are disputed, the reason for the migration of the Bantu throughout Africa is generally accepted. George P. Murdock (1897–1985), an American scholar, argued that it was influenced by the availability of crops. Murdock felt that it was the Bantu acquisition of crops from the East Indies—through trade with Madagascar—such as banana, taro, and yam, which helped a spread westwards from the first millennium b.c.e. onwards. <br />
<br />
It was the cultivation of these crops, Murdock felt, that enabled the Bantu to start settling in the previously largely impenetrable tropical rain forest of central Africa, and from there southwards, establishing the civilization of Great Zimbabwe in the 10th century c.e. Others saw the migratory route, following the ideas of Greenberg, lay in the move east across the southern area of what is now the Sahara, into southern Sudan, and from there south past the Great Lakes. <br />
<br />
If the Bantu originated in the area of southeastern Nigeria and the borders with Cameroon, they would have gradually spread eastwards to the Great Lakes, where, on Lake Victoria, the settlement of Katuruka has been dated to the fifth century b.c.e. A separate group also spread southwards through Gabon and the Congo and to modern-day Angola—the settlement at the Funa River, in modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, dating from 270 b.c.e. <br />
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<table align="center" border="0"><tbody>
<tr><td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1523816384/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=713c451f708944143972a425f2400da5&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1523816384&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1523816384" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1612332900/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=91699e162eebdf77be02add48941223f&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1612332900&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1612332900" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1499139136/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=ee3b1c604fef22904f3ade0780b0888e&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1499139136&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1499139136" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td></tr>
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That group gradually spread south into modern-day Angola, while the eastern migration split south of Lake Victoria, with some heading for the coast and establishing a settlement near Kwale, near Mombasa. Another group moved south, along the eastern shores of Lake Nyassa, forming the civilization of Great <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/07/zimbabwe.html" target="_blank">Zimbabwe</a> by the 10th century c.e., with a third group heading inland, into modern-day Zambia. <br />
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The result of this migration was that, by about 1000 c.e., the Bantu dominated central and southern Africa, except for much of modern-day <a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/10/south-africa-afrikaners.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">South Africa</a>, Namibia, and Botswana. The survival of the Khoisan people in these places is pointed to as further evidence of this migration.<br />
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Knowledge about the divisions within Bantu tribes is known from archaeological evidence. The existence of tribal chiefs can be assumed from early settlements where wealth inequality was seen through the existence of larger and smaller residences. <br />
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Similarly the objects that were found, made from precious metals, and pots of intricate design, were too few to sustain an entire village with the view adopted by archaeologists that poorer members of Bantu tribes would have had wooden objects that have not survived. However, it is also clear that some tribes, such as the Kikuyu in modern-day Kenya, did not have hereditary chiefs but, rather, a person who assumed the role of an elder and was responsible for tax collection and family counseling.<br />
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Unlike the Khoisan and pygmies, the Bantu fought in conflicts and maintained armies. Many of the tribal chiefs maintained large numbers of wives and hence had many children who were often assimilated with commoners. The nature of the rule of the tribes has been surmised through linguistic evidence of the Bantu kinship terminology. <br />
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Although some groups, such as the Masai, use the standard patrilineal system, many others follow matrilineal traditions. In addition the Mayombe people of modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo believe that their “blood,” and hence their descent, goes through a woman, with villagers tracing the origin of their village to an ancestress. <br />
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This is also believed to be the system used by the Bantu in the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/kongo-kingdom-of-africa.html" target="_blank">Kongo</a> (modern-day Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo). As a result the chief in wartime was often the husband of the senior woman, with the government operating through the female line.<br />
<div id="amzn-assoc-ad-6f011dc1-eff3-4ee1-9d89-13cdc7fefa21"></div><script async="" src="//z-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/onejs?MarketPlace=US&adInstanceId=6f011dc1-eff3-4ee1-9d89-13cdc7fefa21"></script><br />
Few archaeological remains have been found of early Bantu civilization, when compared to Europe of the same period. This may have been because of the Bantu use of wood for their buildings. Some 85 million Bantu people now exist in Africa, with most divisions of the Bantu being largely linguistic. <br />
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Although the term has been used for 150 years, because of its pejorative use by the apartheid government in South Africa—whereby blacks were designated as “Bantu”—it is not used much today except as a cultural term to describe the great migration that took place in ancient and medieval Africa.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-62442653060997778282013-10-12T21:31:00.000+07:002017-03-30T19:26:03.403+07:00Bayezid I<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/republic-of-vietnam.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Bayezid I" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghFM3mACEl_AUvjVslUTu5OWfhwopw6FRlarKs_MrersF_jjH_vO8jeyI21LT44IB2y-1fmtS6fQUU_MAHW_XlNHxXTZ4YEoGQcW21CIIUiI6ECYXJV1QeLDKHm1k5N2hapMTlFhqfaISq/s1600/Bayezid-I.jpg" title="Bayezid I" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bayezid I</td></tr>
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<br />
Bayezid I was declared sultan following the death of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/9004219048/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=9004219048&linkId=69eafbfbf2762f3a2f8001c0147412c3" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Sultan Murad</a> on the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/battle-of-kosovo-1389.html" target="_blank">battlefield at Kosovo</a> in 1389. To ensure his uncontested succession to the sultanate, Bayezid had his brother Yakub assassinated; subsequently the practice of fratricide became commonplace among heirs to the Ottoman throne.<br />
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To cement Ottoman control over Serbia, Bayezid married a Serbian royal princess. Bayezid immediately embarked on a series of successful military conquests, personally leading his troops throughout Thrace. Under Bayezid’s rule, only the heavily fortified cities on the coast, including Athens and <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/constantinople.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Constantinople</a>, remained outside Ottoman control. <br />
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Recognizing the importance of sea power in any attempt to seize Constantinople, the Ottomans began to build up their navy. Fearful of the mounting Ottoman threat, the Hungarian king and later Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund rallied Christian forces in Europe to <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01K17SI1O/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B01K17SI1O&linkId=17aae799248b5d6b033ccdf991fca375" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">attack the Ottomans at Nicopolis in 1396</a>. <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0465023975/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0465023975&linkCode=as2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=5BHRB6BY6YC4H4OM" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0465023975&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0465023975" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0307407969/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=0307407969&linkCode=as2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=DPKN5PPRKEJH6YSJ" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0307407969&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&l=as2&o=1&a=0307407969" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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<br />
The Europeans were resoundingly defeated by the Ottoman troops, who were personally led on the battlefield by Bayezid who then conquered virtually all of the Balkans, the Turkoman areas of Karaman, Anatolia, and the eastern Mediterranean. Because of his military prowess, Ottoman troops called Bayezid the “thunderbolt” (yildirim).<br />
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However, Bayezid’s love of luxury and increasing arrogance alienated many of his subjects and offended many <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00XYARUM4/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00XYARUM4&linkId=98f319d5683b271d4a705a33b4f416d7" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">traditional Muslims</a>. Some amirs (local governors) fled to the court of <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/09/timurlane-tamerlane.html" target="_blank">Timurlane</a>, whose mounting power posed a serious threat to Bayezid’s conquests. In 1402 Ottoman and Mongol forces met on the battlefield at Ankara, where Bayezid was captured. <br />
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Brought before Timurlane, Bayezid was initially treated with respect, but after a failed attempt to escape, he was placed in an iron cage; he died several months later. Timurlane went on to conquer the rest of Anatolia but divided his newly gained territories among four of Bayezid’s sons. Although they pledged loyalty to Timurlane, upon his death three years later, they promptly resumed the Ottoman quest for empire.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://abouthealthsome.blogspot.com/2016/07/pennyroyal.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bayezid held by Timurlane" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhMTj71zzRUttq_2oVHlt_4AgophOroPr14GbAjp2iNjF7zjA1b7Q205RJsiPCEL8lmmtR0votIhQ3uXdjXvq5b_RZCNosnnchiVq_UbiAhULLWdWW-RmiSaquoB-gsnNVRleMd3frcBRL/s1600/bayezid-timur.jpg" title="Bayezid held by Timurlane" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bayezid held by Timurlane</td></tr>
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Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-89322456702393020272013-10-12T21:30:00.000+07:002018-09-18T10:53:35.708+07:00Bhakti Movements (Devotional Hinduism)<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/united-arab-emirates-uae.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bhakti Movements (Devotional Hinduism)" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH86_A1E0zuTpJgi3bijrYCZ_zRlByHSt5ssZpAlE5SiyDMjCfHXYGItWBjstRcUQWn-T6NStQbiKdGwJ09T5FRVwcXl8HVBiH3sLig1RsBEcCGc9FvQzXRddnXviuJZaSUamsCzEAuO_5/s1600/Bhakti-Movements.jpg" title="Bhakti Movements (Devotional Hinduism)" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bhakti Movements (Devotional Hinduism)</td></tr>
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The word bhakti is derived from a <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/sanskrit.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word for “sharing.” It was used to describe a new type of path to moksha (“liberation from the cycle of reincarnations”). <br />
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Bhakti devotees (bhaktas) usually committed themselves to one of the Trimurti of Brahman (“the supreme spirit reality”). The three gods of the Trimurti are <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/brahma.html" target="_blank">Brahma</a>, Vishnu or Shiva, or in many cases bhaktas devoted themselves to some avatar, like Krishna, of the Trimurti in an emotional way. This emotional commitment marked the bhaktas as followers of bhaktimarga.<br />
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Bhakti movements called people to ardent devotion to a god or goddess as a thankful expression of gratitude for benefits received. Or it could express the hope for aid to be received. Most commonly it took the form of a passionate love of the deity. <br />
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As they developed the bhakti movements became the bhaktimarga, or one of the three Hindu paths (margas) for escaping from the wheel of reincarnation. The margas were “paths” or “roads” or “ways” for achieving the final liberation of the soul from the karma-caused cycle of repeated reincarnations. The basic problem of human life was suffering. <br />
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To escape the repeated cycles of reincarnation was the goal of life. Until the development of the bhaktimarga there were only the two paths of karmamarga (“religion of rituals and ethical deeds”) and the gyanamarga (jnanamarga, or “religion of the head through meditation”). The path of bhakti was the religious way of the heart, the way of loving devotion.<br />
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The bhakti movements arose in South India among Tamil-speaking people at some time in the seventh to ninth centuries. It provides its devotees salvation through loving devotion to the ultimate deity. The Alvars (“one who had dived” or “one who is immersed”) were Tamil-speaking poets whose works promoted bhakti worship in South India. The Alvars are counted as 12 poets of the bhakti movement who lived in South India between 650 and 940. <br />
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They promoted the worship of Vishnu using poetry as a vehicle for expressing a passionate love of the god. The object of the writing was to show how any bhakta could express deep devotion to the god as a path to the god’s or goddess’s heaven. The Alvas and other wandering singers of the times included people from all castes. They used the inclusion of outcasts to show the potential for universal salvation (universalism).<br />
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Monotheistic challenges from Islam with its firm emphasis on the unity of God may have influenced bhakti movements in northern India. However, Hinduism, while not <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/01/vedic-age.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Vedic Age">Vedic</a> religion, takes its starting point from the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/01/vedas.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, so bhakti scholars have found their roots in the Vedic worship of the Rig Veda god Veruna. Vedic knowledge was passed from guru to disciple through the centuries. This spiritual lineage is called sampradayas. <br />
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Others see bhakti in portions of the Sanskrit texts the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/ramayana.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> or the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/bhagavad-gita.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> or in other portions of the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/mahabharata.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>. Still others see its origin in the Padma Purana. <br />
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Bhakti worship tended toward monotheistic practice. Bhakti also suppressed the numerous iconographic expressions of the multiple expressions of the Brahma, which outsiders regarded as idolatry. Some bhakti movements were connected with Shiva, the god of sexuality, fertility, and destruction. Others are connected with Krishna worship. The defining characteristic of Tamil Bhakti was its expression of devotion in songs sung in vernacular languages. <br />
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Singing in the languages of the common people was not only very egalitarian but also very emotional. Those who advanced in devotion became bhakti saints. Around them communities (satsang) of good people would gather. It was believed that the gathering together of goodness would overcome evil and would also have the power to transform lives.<br />
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Bhakti movements combined songs (bhajan) with devotion. Two groups of singer-saints, the Alvars and the Nayanars, flourished in South India after the 600s. These two groups, the Alvars and the Nayanars, were devoted to promoting the worship of Shiva and the other the worship of Vishnu. At times the singing was chanting that continued for a very long period of time. <br />
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Many of the bhajans contain elements of love expressed passionately and may be compared to the passionate love expressed in the Song of Solomon. Others are more explicitly sexual deriving their themes from the stories of Krishna cavorting with the gopis (cow girls) or Krishna as a divine lover. <br />
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Some bhakti devotees have produced love poetry. For example, Jayadeva produced the Gitagovinda (Song of Govinda) in the 12th century. Women have been heavily involved in bhakti movements since the beginning, with some becoming poetesses. Other bhakti practices have included recitation of the name of the devotee’s God.<br />
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During the medieval period the bhakti schools developed devotional practices based upon the emotions of relationships. These emotional expressions were interpreted as analogous of the relationship of the devotee with the god. Among these emotional expressions is that of a woman’s love for her beloved. A feature of the bhakti movements was the making of bhakti saints. <br />
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For example, Purandaradas (c. 1540) was a great literary figure of the bhakti movement. He was revered as the father of Carnatic classical that is called Karnataka music of South India. His classification of swaravali, jantivarase, alamkara, and lakshana factors are the standard today throughout South India.<br />
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Most Hindus chose the Trimurti gods of Vishnu or Shiva. Few chose Brahma. Those who chose Vishnu or his avatars are called Vaishnavites. Among Vishnu’s avatars were Krishna, Rama, and Buddha. Consorts included Radha the beloved of Krishna, and Sita an incarnation of Lakshmi. In the Ramayana Sita and Rama are presented as the perfect couple. Their mutual devotion in love is offered as the example to follow. <br />
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Bhaktas who follow Shiva are called Shaivites. They are devoted to the lord of the dance who in Kapalakundala’ hymn in Bhavabhuti’s Malatimadhava has Shiva engaged in a mad dance that destroys worlds, but also renews them. Shiva’s consorts include Parvati who is kind and gentle, Kali who spreads disease and death, and Durga who is a warrior goddess that seeks sacrifices, including human sacrifices.<br />
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Another form of bhakti is yoga bhakti. In yoga bhakti the yogin meditates in order to find release into a meditative absorption with the deity. Many ascetics (sadhus) and yogins are devotees of Shiva because he is known as the great yogin. In the 16th century the famous saint Chaitanya (1486–1533) added devotional singing, chanting, and dancing in the streets. <br />
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Along with his followers numerous Krishna temples were built. Chaitanya promoted Vishnu bhakti widely across northern India, particularly in Bengal. From this group came the International Society for Krishna Consciousness that is popularly known as the Hare Krishnas.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-50964424084316795292013-10-12T21:27:00.003+07:002018-09-18T11:21:08.872+07:00Golden Bull of 1356<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/nadir-shah-persian-conqueror.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Golden Bull of 1356" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhD9UrkAMyeJ8ooz-vl18112uaBIdYuYNCYnwfqXL2XjbAWFEZsB4Zhh2gsHoL73D5wID4ynPlVNurDkzCjV-RtP7U5FsOEAUqMnBefYb0dxRk6I1qII5BtQiHSctCpKCY917Lt-vEAO7Zn/s1600/Golden-Bull.jpg" title="Golden Bull of 1356" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Golden Bull of 1356</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV (r. 1346–78) established a kind of constitution for the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/holy-roman-empire.html" target="_blank">Holy Roman Empire</a> in 1356, calling the document in which the new rules were laid out the “Golden Bull” (Bulla Aurea). <br />
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It was called by that distinctive name for two reasons: first, because of the medieval practice of affixing to official documents and important such declarations seals (Latin, bulla), the Latin word was transliterated into the English word bull and came to signify such official documents themselves; second, because the particular seal on this important document was cast in gold it is the “Golden Bull.” However its significance does not lie primarily in its name, but in its fundamental importance to the Holy Roman Empire’s future.<br />
<br />
The <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0692476555/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0692476555&linkId=617e3cbc875e156680061b620d1528a4" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Holy Roman Empire</a> was at different times a loose confederation of central European principalities. The various princes of the region cooperated to some degree as sovereigns and practiced election of an emperor. The year 1346 marked Charles IV’s election as emperor. <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674058097/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=-noN.yHVVjRmeu9gkfsuZg&slotNum=1&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=576b9c6ae5e1c381fb44196299e66c5e&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0674058097&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0674058097" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199688826/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=-noN.yHVVjRmeu9gkfsuZg&slotNum=2&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=806c7359c91b6c98012c7b6d5a212121&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0199688826&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0199688826" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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By 1356 <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8024631326/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=8024631326&linkId=8fed5f201268445bfb640ae4c2c2ba20" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Charles IV</a>, also king of Bohemia, realized that unlike in <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/new-france.html" target="_blank">France</a> and England, where monarchy had more firmly established itself and created more unified states, the Crown of the Holy Roman Empire was relatively weak to unify the mostly German principalities. Lacking the ability to forge unity, and seeing the Holy Roman Empire as a confederation of states and the emperor as first among princes of equal stature and power, Charles IV formulated the Golden Bull in 1356.<br />
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The document sought to bring an imperial peace and more stable form to this confederation of mostly German principalities, which was characterized by diverse cultures, customs, ways of life, and languages. As a reform and restatement of the ancient constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, it would form a basis of government for the empire as the foundational constitutional document, until the empire was dissolved by <a href="http://historyworldsome.blogspot.com/2013/11/napoleon-i-napoleon-bonaparte.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> in the year 1806. <br />
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Though some see the Golden Bull as creating anarchy in the name of constitutionalism, and others call it the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/magna-carta.html" target="_blank">Magna Carta</a> of the German states, it was primarily concerned not with individual rights, but with the duties and rights of the princes who elected the emperor and helped him rule the empire.<br />
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Articulated in 1356 at imperial diets at <a href="http://crisissome.blogspot.com/2015/10/nuremberg-laws.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Nuremberg</a> and Mainz, it formed the basis of imperial elections and set the number of electors at seven. It gave the seven electoral princes extensive rights including the privilege of both nomination and selection of the emperor. Stipulating that the king of Bohemia, who was then Charles IV, was to be one of the electors, it also elevated him over the other elector princes. <br />
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In addition to the king of Bohemia, other electors were to be the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne; the margraves of Miessen and Brandenburg; and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1313460419/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1313460419&linkId=bf12537d831199eee1bffcb68ba24ddd" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">the counts Palatine of the Rhine</a>. Charles IV’s hope was that this arrangement would not only create unity among the elector princes and a balance of power, but also ensure hereditary succession through the regulated process of election.<br />
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Producing the “king of the Romans,” as the Golden Bull called the elected emperor, it limited participation to the seven elector princes, even disallowing any direct participation by the pope. Voting was regularized specifically, and a majority of four votes was sufficient for election, which would culminate in coronation by the pope in <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/medieval-rome.html" target="_blank">Rome</a>. It also strengthened the individual positions of the seven electors within the empire. <br />
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These “pillars” became a “college,” above the various legal estates of clergy, townspeople, and nobility. To alleviate the temptation to divide up electoral votes, the territories of the seven elector princes were made indivisible by inheritance. The princes also gained powers that accrued to them personally, such as the right to capital justice, and control of local mining, tolls, and coinage.<br />
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Seven copies of the Golden Bull of 1356 still exist, having been preserved by several of the electoral princes and the cities of Nuremberg and Frankfurt. An interesting document, it limited government in the Holy Roman Empire, if only by ending the legal possibility of a hereditary empire in favor of an elective, if still very exclusive position as “king of the Romans.”Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-73598932175934656602013-10-12T21:17:00.001+07:002018-09-18T17:07:31.348+07:00Black Death<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/solidarity-movement.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Black Death" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7hGe1o_78a7baPYf2gnGpQ2LEqOrZBc-6BmXUsmUeqkDIMy4qBEMuUpNiTvYNLHE6ba8Bq5T-9KgEXvlvsVtqw-Q71tLO-FaHoKogKYpOWMOTFDv3NtEzFI5noCbJ70T2lZ5qpnQ_qBvB/s1600/Black-Death.jpg" title="Black Death" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Black Death</td></tr>
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The Black Death (Black Plague, The Plague, Bubonic Plague) was so named because the skin on many of its victims turned black, a result of massive blood clots. Although there have been many plagues throughout history, the three most associated with the term Black Plague are pandemics (epidemics that affect huge geographic areas) that occurred in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00DPUB56U/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00DPUB56U&linkId=c70968443b324b963c8445273be8c24b" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Byzantium</a> during the sixth century b.c.e., throughout Europe and the British Isles during the 14th century, and in 1894 in Asia. The first outbreak in 540 c.e., often referred to as the Plague of <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/justinian-i-byzantine-emperor.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Justinian</a>, began in Egypt, according to Procopius.<br />
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The disease spread from the coasts to inland areas, killing thousands of people each day. Allegedly, corpses were put on ships and sent out to sea to be abandoned. The power shift from south to north and from the Mediterranean to the British Isles is attributed to this devastation. <br />
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It was the second pandemic—a series of outbreaks that escalated from an early episode in 1331 to the disastrous events in 1346—that is most frequently referred to as the Black Death. In 1346 a Mongol prince and his armies attempted to lay siege to Caffa, in the Crimea. However, the soldiers were stricken with this dreadful disease and withdrew, but not before catapulting infected corpses over the city wall. <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Black-Death-Philip-Ziegler/dp/006171898X/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=44dbaec6f53bb4b03eb5279a4a8cadd7&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=006171898X&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=006171898X" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Black-Death-Transformation-West-ebook/dp/B00L9XW7IK/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&me=&qid=&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=3b6eb777faab43027bf38a975df407df&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B00L9XW7IK&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=B00L9XW7IK" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The Christian defenders, who thought they were now safe from attack, left to return home but perished from the plague. The few who reached home spread the disease throughout Europe and as far north as Greenland. Within a year 80 percent of Marseille had died. According to various sources, the death rate varied from 12 to 50 percent. It is estimated that in Europe 20–25 million, and throughout the world 42 million people died.<br />
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There are three forms or types of the disease: bubonic, pneumonic, and septicemic. The most dramatic is the septicemic version. Immense numbers of bacteria cause DIC (disseminated intravascular coagulation), a condition where there is so much debris in the bloodstream, the blood hemorrhages under the skin and the afflicted person’s body, or parts of it, becomes black. These victims died almost immediately, within one to three days after they showed symptoms of the disease.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/el-cid.html" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Plague doctor...the "beak" would contain herbs that would help to protect the Doctor from contracting the disease. It was basically useless...of course they didn't realize how disease was spread and the different methods of cross contamination, etc..." border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhco4VutE5jrzRUQa4HQm0S2ffC5L0JPFF_yu9UIE0Gdt5QC607LGMHds_3N0-Fl0IDBgDmXgwckuERisNg-G56F6ig1kmOwTYEhmpaXK4Uq5EfNb6tDuwwtGGKtJeEnZSqakH12DsjJLrs/s1600/Plague-doctor.jpg" title="Plague doctor" width="250" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Plague doctor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–75), the author of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140449302/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=0140449302&linkId=1fcadd0762c6dfa8e8c65d6c39908a0a" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">the Decameron</a>, a bawdy collection of stories that were told by Italian travelers trying to escape the plague in Florence, wrote, “They generally died the third day after the appearance without fever.” In the bubonic form of the disease, victims were stricken with a headache, nausea, achy joints, high fevers, vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. It took from one day to one week for the patient to exhibit the <a href="http://amazingrainbow.blogspot.com/2009/12/characteristics-of-good-leader.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">characteristic</a> symptoms after being exposed.<br />
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The most painful symptom was swelling of the lymph glands in the armpit, groin, and neck. These enlargements would become buboes, painful abscesses; <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00AKE1ZIC/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00AKE1ZIC&linkId=fcf2981eb7d25939a6bca9d431db34a9" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">skin infections</a> filled with pus. When the bubo broke and drained, the purulent material inside was infectious and therefore spread to whomever touched the patient or the anything the patient’s clothing, bedding, or items that he handled. <br />
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Boccaccio wrote, “... in men and women alike there appeared, at the beginning of the malady, certain swellings, either on the groin or under the armpits, whereof some waxed of the bigness of a common apple, others like unto an egg, some more and some less, and these the vulgar named plagueboils ... to appear and come indifferently in every part of the body; wherefrom, after awhile, the fashion of the contagion began to change into black or livid blotches, which showed themselves in many, first on the arms and about the thighs and after spread to every other part of the person ... a very certain token of coming death ...” <br />
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Patients with the bubonic form spread the pneumonic form via fine droplets from a cough or sneeze. Although it was less lethal than the septicemic version, victims suffered from painful coughing episodes and eventually they coughed so much that the lining of their lungs became irritated and they coughed up blood.<br />
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<tr><td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B004M8920U/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=82a6f145f407061d070f620ce7f86a80&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B004M8920U&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=B004M8920U" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Great-Mortality-Intimate-History-Devastating-ebook/dp/B008O8JWZY/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&me=&qid=&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=ca6f812065ab003d082b37bfbc518d8f&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B008O8JWZY&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=B008O8JWZY" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1523951060/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=bd0aada893b7941dd025543fcf29256b&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1523951060&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=1523951060" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span></td></tr>
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People were so fearful of catching the plague that they abandoned their own family members, friends, homes, and public spaces in order to escape contact with anyone stricken with the disease. Doctors who were still willing to treat patients donned hoods with masks, beaks and hats in order to avoid breathing the air around a plague victim. They had no way of understanding the natural history or cause of this disease. <br />
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They blamed an unlucky conjunction of astrological influences, such as Saturn, Jupiter and Mars, and poison from the tails of comets, or blamed Jews for allegedly poisoned the wells. But even after the wells had been sealed, people continued to get the plague. <br />
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Some of the treatments such as cupping, purging and bleeding, although acceptable in the 14th century, did more harm than good and weakened anyone who remained alive after such insults to their feeble bodies. Amazingly some people survived and because of their illness, developed antibodies that provided immunity against a future attack.<br />
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<b>The Spread of the Black Plague</b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/frankish-tribe.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="The Black Death ripped through Europe" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFQf7n_9irvda0E9WhqhIU2DpV61DPp2PmsiO989DbkBd-o9TNuPzgfNb3TJqct6xL7yBzNXv14OyWr7ATetAfk4PCLZhPRd1fw9wwgunRVd91ISKD2iP2aUcGYBGXoIJgLvNf3EgjGYvV/s1600/black-europe.jpg" title="The Black Death ripped through Europe" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Black Death ripped through Europe</td></tr>
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This second pandemic was facilitated by a number of factors. Populations had reached such high numbers in Europe that there was not enough food to feed everyone. Consequently those who could not afford the rising cost of food lacked adequate nutrition, and became easy targets for any new threat to health. There were trade routes connecting urban centers and increased travel in the form of caravans. Returning <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B003C2SP6E/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B003C2SP6E&linkId=8af0f0921499c1bcb036ccc16a4bd1cb" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">crusaders</a> were spreading Christianity and, at the same time, the plague.<br />
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The causative organism Pasturella pestis (now called Yersinia pestis) was already present in the burrowing rodents of the Manchurian-Mongolian steppes but did not create a plague until the black rat (Rattus rattus) spread to Europe with a specific kind of flea. Rattus rattus originated in Asia but reached Europe during the early Middle Ages. They thrived in environments where people lived, near water, and traveled by ship. <br />
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The black rat’s flea <b>Xenophylla cheopsis</b> would bite the rat, but instead of being satisfied with its blood meal, its digestive tract would get plugged with plague bacteria, thus creating a constant hunger. It would voraciously bite anything in its path, including humans. When it found a human host, it spread the disease through repeated bites.<br />
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Europe had eradicated both the <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/opportunity.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Opportunity">opportunity</a> and the infection, but Asia suffered acutely. In the early 1890s an epidemic broke out in southern China, then in the city of Guangzhou in January of 1894, where 100,000 were reported dead. By May it had spread to the Tai Ping Shan area of <a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/05/hong-kong.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>. <br />
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As in any epidemic high population density, poor hygiene, inadequate health education, and the government’s inability to maintain a decent water supply and sewer treatment facility added to the poor defenses of the <a href="http://be-eco-friendly.blogspot.com/2010/10/population.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Population">population</a>. That year, 2,552 people died. Trade was affected and many Chinese left the colony. Plague continued to be a problem in Asia for the next 30 years.<br />
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The causative organism of the plague was not isolated and described until the third pandemic in 1894. Shibasaburo Kitasato and Alexandre Yersin simultaneously discovered the bacteria responsible for the plague, soon after they arrived in Hong Kong to assist in the eradication of the plague there. <br />
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Originally named Pasturella pestis, the organism responsible for causing the Black Death was renamed Yersinia pestis after it was reclassified into a different genus on the basis of its similarities to other Enterobacteriaceae <a href="http://watersome.blogspot.com/2011/11/species-introduction.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Species Introduction">species</a>.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-10352002501025075852013-10-12T21:16:00.002+07:002018-09-18T17:26:14.102+07:00Berbers<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/falklands-war-1982.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Tariq ibn al-Ziyad, a berber commander" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFwOacDPQllSUojby4XIV-nd_A84lGME1msND6vQAN5eteiFGCubeA1OjZzoqpLH27H9qIGuJ8cB0Ex-MxpHVWJqDfwmm6R8XTGJ5xPs3x-o9xrTxI2vTjz3hbiQtsW67ZsdkLOut3dSLS/s1600/Tarik-Ziyad.jpg" title="Tariq ibn al-Ziyad, a berber commander" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tariq ibn al-Ziyad, a berber commander</td></tr>
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The Berbers are the earliest known inhabitants of northwestern Africa’s Mediterranean coast, plains, and mountain ranges. Living as nomadic herders or farmers in Morocco’s Atlas and Rif mountain ranges, Algeria, the Sahara Desert, east into <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/libya.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Libya</a> and Egypt, the exact ethnic and cultural origins of the Berbers is unknown, though their languages, called Tamazight, belongs to a family of Afro-Asiatic languages. In ancient times, Berber religions were polytheistic.<br />
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Although ancient Berber history is sketchy because of the fact that there was no written form of their langu ages, references to them do exist in chronicles from ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Beginning around 600 b.c.e. some Berber regions of North Africa came under foreign occupation, first by the mighty city-state of <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/carthage.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Carthage</a>, and then by the Roman republic. Under Carthaginian and Roman rule, Berber merchants linked the Mediterranean coastal settlements with West Africa, trading in slaves, gold, and ivory. <br />
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Under the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/roman-empire.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Roman Empire</a>, some Berbers residing on the Mediterranean coast became imperial citizens, though Berber communities living in the North African interior mountain ranges and other rural areas remained largely independent. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, large sections of North Africa’s seacoast remained under the control of the Byzantine Empire of Asia Minor.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0631207678/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=f6210c73c6b20f6a4013e511868f2690&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0631207678&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0631207678" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0130983896/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=xi4EPhWFx1mKKphMFOmXNg&slotNum=1&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=45a171ad8e28db2b66346dfad7c3698b&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0130983896&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0130983896" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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After the rise of Islam in the first half of the seventh century c.e. Arab Muslim expansion into North Africa began in earnest, beginning in 642 during the reign of the second al-Rashidun caliph, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab. The new religion slowly spread among segments of the Berber tribes, replacing Byzantine Christianity, which many Berbers practiced in some form, and <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/early-judaism.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Judaism</a>. <br />
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Although many Berbers accepted the basic tenets of Islam, their method of practice generally remained unorthodox. This led to a growing level of tension between them and the Arab <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/08/umayyad-dynasty.html" target="_blank">Umayyad</a> Caliphate of Syria by the middle of the eighth century. <br />
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A large number of Berbers joined the fundamentalist movement of the Kharijites, who opposed the Umayyads and preached that any qualified Muslim could lead the community. Berber opposition to the centralized power of the caliphate continued after the collapse of the Umayyads in 750 by the Abbasid Revolution. <br />
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The Fatimids, an Isma’ili Shi’i movement that arose in 969, received substantial Berber support in their takeover of Egypt and parts of North Africa from the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad, Iraq. During the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/fatimid-dynasty.html" target="_blank">Fatimid dynasty</a>, there is evidence that there was an attempt to instill Arab culture within Berber societies, which had largely retained their own cultural practices and languages.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/massacre-of-constantinople.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Berber warriors" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheFkEYavDXl3AhC86fA3pocD0X2eHnZ9jK1LBL7dS7DglWEG7pHz8OzsLDhG5wqV9zZXGyS5VSRCrNmnVOqwFRHrwuAj5gdf728XLxEwv1cB8roA46uKsmOKuHOTD1GOx8jPOSGpimwQ8W/s1600/berber-warrior.jpg" title="Berber warriors" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Berber warriors</td></tr>
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In 711 during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik, the first Muslim expeditions to the Iberian Peninsula were launched under the command of a Berber, <b>Tariq ibn al-Ziyad</b>, and other Berber Muslims. A mixed party of Arabs and Berbers under the Umayyad commander Musa ibn Nusayr followed al-Ziyad’s landing the next year and Berber soldiers continued to play a major role in Muslim expansion throughout Iberia and southern France for centuries.<br />
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The first major Berber political-military state to emerge was the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/almoravid-empire.html" target="_blank">Almoravid Empire</a>, which was founded in Mauritania and the Sahara around 1050 and practiced a more orthodox form of Sunni Islam. With the founding of their capital city, Marrakesh, in <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/07/alawi-dynasty-in-morocco.html" target="_blank">Morocco</a> in 1062, Almoravid expansion continued under the joint rule of Yusuf ibn Tashfin and his cousin, Abu Bakr. <br />
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In 1086 Almoravid armies landed in Iberia, where Yusuf defeated Alfonso VI, the Christian king of Castile, which allowed the Berber empire to establish a fundamentalist Sunni Muslim state with control over much of southern Iberia, all of Morocco, and parts of West Africa.<br />
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By 1150 another Berber movement, the Almohads, under ‘Abd al-Mu’min overthrew the Almoravids, taking over Morocco and southern Spain while expanding east across North Africa. Like their predecessors, the Almohads founded a fundamentalist and militaristic Sunni Muslim state. <br />
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Unlike the Almoravids the Almohad Empire slowly broke apart into smaller states, and the last Almohad caliph, Idris II, ruled only the city of Marrakesh before his murder in 1269. Under the Almoravid and Almohad periods, the majority of the Berber tribes converted to Sunni Islam, following the Maliki School of Islamic jurisprudence. <br />
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Although the Berbers continued to hold onto aspects of their culture and continued to speak Berber languages, many also adopted some Arab cultural practices. Berbers continue to live throughout present-day North Africa and form a large segment of the populations in Morocco and <a href="http://historyworldsome.blogspot.com/2013/12/algeria-under-french-rule.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Algeria</a>, with some tribes continuing to reside in Mauritania, Tunisia, and Mali.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-89254265247924572042013-10-12T21:16:00.000+07:002018-09-18T17:38:37.898+07:00Bernard of Clairvaux<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/cuban-migration-to-united-states.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bernard of Clairvaux" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1OrNBVo28bnuomdBkmDVr8CeUW9eTF7ce1k6U8zmz-SJBO_UHH5-IPwKbb8Zn2UbtFNZnluamOFheAYjw1HDdZxuKIJ2GZOaOy7YYAQhMVrTq_pKwuV_hToXzUfO14PI_FX_MwtP_1n3A/s1600/Bernard-Clairvaux.jpg" title="Bernard of Clairvaux" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bernard of Clairvaux</td></tr>
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Saint Bernard of Clairvaux was born in 1090 in Fontaine (now a suburb of Dijon in Burgundy, France) of noble parents: Tescelin, a relative of the lord of Châtillon, and Aleth, daughter of the lord of Montbard. His five brothers trained for military careers, but Bernard had fragile health and enrolled in the religious institute of Saint-Vorles (at Châtillon) for instruction leading to an ecclesiastical profession. <br />
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He studied there for 10 years. Hesitating about his future, he finally decided to embrace the monastic life. Even before he entered the monastery, he convinced many relatives and friends to join him in the preparation for religious calling. <br />
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He entered the abbey of Cîteaux (close to Dijon) in 1113. The so-called New Monastery had been founded 15 years before by former Benedictine monks from Molesme, eager to follow the Rule of Saint Benedict more authentically. Cîteaux is the cradle of the Cistercian Order.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0809129175/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=h.xpth.Xy.467BVtC2APlQ&slotNum=0&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=dc660909892c18fceae32a0b04b48305&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0809129175&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0809129175" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0879071141/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=416cb32d6c961d321fe98db57d2569e7&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0879071141&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" ></a><img src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0879071141" width="1" height="1" border="0" alt="" style="border:none !important; margin:0px !important;" /></span></td> </tr>
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Two years later the abbot sent Bernard to be the founding superior of a new monastery, Clairvaux, in the region of Champagne. It rapidly became economically and spiritually prosperous. Bernard’s zeal attracted many young people, and Clairvaux counted more than 60 foundations or affiliated religious communities at his death. <br />
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This success disturbed some more conservative monks and involved Bernard in a controversy with the Benedictine abbey of <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/cluny.html" target="_blank">Cluny</a>. Advised by his close Benedictine friend and first biographer William of Saint-Thierry, he wrote the Apology to defend the Cistercian reform.<br />
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Renowned as a reformer, he was often invited by councils bishops to help carry out policies of ecclesial change within the church. Civil authorities even consulted Bernard to find solutions that would bring peace and justice. In 1130, as the church faced a major crisis with the election of two popes, he was consulted about a way to reunite the church. <br />
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Innocent II, the pope confirmed instead of Anacletus II, then asked Bernard to accompany him throughout Europe and to consolidate the church by his skillful preaching. For eight years he served in this way. Meanwhile, he remained abbot of Clairvaux and kept on writing major spiritual works, especially his 86 Sermons on the Song of Songs.<br />
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In the last period of his life he was involved in various ecclesial forays. He formally criticized the writings of the theologians <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/peter-abelard-and-heloise.html" target="_blank">Peter Abelard</a> and Arnold of Brescia at the Council of Sens (1140), leading to their judicially questionable censure. He also participated in Gilbert de la Porée’s condemnation in 1141. <br />
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He defended the church against heretics. He preached on the eve of the Second <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/crusades.html" target="_blank">Crusade</a> at Vézelay in 1146. In spite of his powerful spiritual message and appeal to inner conversion, the crusade was a total failure and left Bernard embittered.<br />
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He died on August 20, 1153, and was recognized as a saint 21 years later. In 1830 he was declared a Doctor of the Church. Apart from his many treatises and sermons overflowing with biblical references, more than 300 of his letters are extant. His spiritual influence has been constant and extensive, even touching the Protestant reformer <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/martin-luther.html" target="_blank">Martin Luther</a> (1483–1546). His message inspires many scholars and religious teachers to this day.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-91170157649180920642013-10-12T21:15:00.000+07:002019-01-06T05:35:36.138+07:00Giovanni Boccaccio<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/02/muammar-qaddafi.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Giovanni Boccaccio" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNY63-UgTgNuUDSud5rtftoDNQVsuuWqHdYMjBfaUP_B7YaJSavF72bf3sMLltBP18YdIoppEvYpMuzvkxyEEmF0GwPSuZaff4m11gCuzSRZWDWxUM0kd_HFZGSGr80IKcb7NAfBlCFWA6/s1600/Giovanni-Boccaccio.jpg" title="Giovanni Boccaccio" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Giovanni Boccaccio</td></tr>
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Boccaccio is the most recent of the three “great minds” of 14th-century Italian humanism, after <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/dante-alighieri.html" target="_blank">Dante Alighieri</a> and Petrarch. He was a poet, a scientist, and, most important, a creator of the early modern short story genre. Boccaccio’s ancestors were peasants, but his father became a wealthy merchant in Florence not long before his son’s birth. Boccaccio’s mother is unknown. <br />
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Some reports suggest the writer’s birthplace was Paris, but most historians agree that it was either Florence or Certaldo (Tuscany). Born illegitimately, Boccaccio was nevertheless officially recognized by his father, who was reported to have been a crude and ill-mannered man.<br />
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Wishing Giovanni to enter business, his father sent him to <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/naples.html" target="_blank">Naples</a> to learn the profession. Soon, however, it became evident that the boy had no aspiration to follow in his father’s footsteps and greatly disliked mercantile business. He was then ordered to study canon law, but this discipline was equally incompatible with Boccaccio’s demeanor, which was better suited to the vocation of poetry and letters.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140449302/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&amp&amp&amp&amp&amp&amp&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=166fd9f680f3d7547ab4c79b8a7649e0&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0140449302&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0140449302" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Inferno-AmazonClassics-Dante-Alighieri/dp/1542048656/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=89628355d3fbb29ea2864a13e9ad4288&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1542048656&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=1542048656" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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His father’s money and position gave Boccaccio access to Naples’s high society and introduced him into the literary-scientific circle gathered around King Robert of Anjou. Naples of the first half of the 14th century was one of the largest cultural centers of western Europe, and Boccaccio’s affiliation with it, as well as his love affair with the king’s daughter Fiammetta, greatly stimulated the young man’s literary and poetic talent.<br />
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During this first Neapolitan period of <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/creativity.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">creativity</a>, Boccaccio wrote numerous poems eulogizing Fiammetta, then produced the novel Filocolo (1336–39) and two lengthy poems, Filostrato and Teseida (both finished in 1340). Today almost forgotten, these works were widely read by Boccaccio’s contemporaries and played an important role in the development of Italian literature. <br />
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In 1333–34 Boccaccio was first exposed to the poetry of Petrarch, whose verses began to reach Naples. After having heard Petrarch’s sonnets for the first time, Boccaccio went home and burned all his youthful works, disgusted with his own “petty” attempts at verse composition.<br />
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In 1340 two major Florentine banks collapsed, and Boccaccio’s father lost almost all his savings; the young poet returned to Florence to assist his suddenly poor family. The <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/black-death.html" target="_blank">Black Death</a> of 1348, which took the lives of his father, stepmother, and numerous friends, crashed Boccaccio emotionally and took what was left of his family’s money. In spite (or maybe because of) these disasters, the Florentine period was especially productive for Boccaccio. <br />
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In Florence he created his most important works: <br />
<ul>
<li><a amzn-ps-bm-asin="116591140X" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="399668ee6dbc495366a644abbbe17fc7" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Comedia Ninfe" href="http://www.amazon.com/Ameto-Comedia-Fiorentine-Italian-Edition/dp/116591140X/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=theconthist-20&linkId=399668ee6dbc495366a644abbbe17fc7&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_4008928" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Comedia Ninfe</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_4008928" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=theconthist-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=399668ee6dbc495366a644abbbe17fc7&_cb=1448465255058" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> (1341–42), also known as the Commedia delle ninfe fiorentine (dedicated to Niccolò di Bartolo Del Buono); </li>
<li>the first draft of De vita et moribus domini Francisci Petracchi; </li>
<li>the first version of the <a amzn-ps-bm-asin="0874513472" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="44853ff57fa4d26a02e05a01cb8453f0" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Amorosa visione" href="http://www.amazon.com/Amorosa-Visione-Giovanni-Boccaccio/dp/0874513472/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=theconthist-20&linkId=44853ff57fa4d26a02e05a01cb8453f0&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_2125840" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Amorosa visione</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_2125840" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=theconthist-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=44853ff57fa4d26a02e05a01cb8453f0&_cb=1448465298657" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> (1342–43); </li>
<li><a amzn-ps-bm-asin="8811583586" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="14a24fda477d68718adcc81fb1c0512d" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta" href="http://www.amazon.com/Elegia-Madonna-Fiammetta-Giovanni-Boccaccio/dp/8811583586/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=theconthist-20&linkId=14a24fda477d68718adcc81fb1c0512d&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_9053177" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_9053177" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=theconthist-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=14a24fda477d68718adcc81fb1c0512d&_cb=1448465390031" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> (1343–44); </li>
<li><a amzn-ps-bm-asin="884250906X" class="amzn_ps_bm_tl" data-amzn-link-id="c445784bd42909794ae37ce81d7c8b5f" data-amzn-ps-bm-keyword="Ninfale fiesolano" href="http://www.amazon.com/Ninfale-fiesolano-Giovanni-Boccaccio/dp/884250906X/ref=as_li_bk_tl/?tag=theconthist-20&linkId=c445784bd42909794ae37ce81d7c8b5f&linkCode=ktl" id="amznPsBmLink_7198996" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Ninfale fiesolano</a><img alt="" border="0" height="0" id="amznPsBmPixel_7198996" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?source=bk&t=theconthist-20&bm-id=default&l=ktl&linkId=c445784bd42909794ae37ce81d7c8b5f&_cb=1448465444183" style="border: none !important; height: 0px !important; margin: 0px !important; padding: 0px !important; width: 0px !important;" width="0" /> (1344–45); </li>
<li>and, finally, the Decameron (1349–51), Boccaccio’s most mature masterpiece of witty satire that greatly influenced further development of Italian literature.</li>
</ul>
<br />
From the 1350s Boccaccio fell increasingly under the influence of Petrarch and began to write more in Latin and more on religious, devotional, and philosophical subjects. His last years were dedicated to Dante, whose works he studied and conducted a series of lectures on the Divine Comedy. Italian humanism is greatly indebted to the author of the Decameron. Boccaccio died on December 21, 1375 in Certaldo.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-28996266757616181922013-10-12T21:13:00.001+07:002019-04-19T05:44:04.488+07:00Bohemia<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/us-baby-boom.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Bohemia" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVBOM9T-1mz3rVqmN5yK25Zv266l00Y2Jka6AT3YMuihSPPDMQ2IyCcPLdkU9dTpZtYB1jugsnW7G8mj_dBLLo68BJP0SUahVAHnEqc-H7OHI6W_neKVwmrTOeQU4vVog6_QATFCDGVT-V/s1600/Bohemia.jpg" title="Bohemia" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bohemia</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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Bohemia was a kingdom in central Europe, a vassal from the 10th century and later an electorate of the <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/holy-roman-empire.html" target="_blank">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The earliest known historical inhabitants of the country were the Boii, a Celtic tribe, from whom Bohemia derives its name. By the first century Slavic tribes, including the Czechs, arrived, becoming predominant in the region from the sixth century. <br />
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The only early Slavic rulers known by name are Samo, who defeated the neighboring Avars and Franks and established the first strong Slavic kingdom in Bohemia in the early seventh century, and the semimythical Krok, whose daughter Libusa, according to legend, married a plowman named Premysl, founding the Premyslid dynasty.<br />
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In the ninth century the still-pagan Bohemians were subject to increasing political and religious pressure from the Christianized Franks active in southwest Germany. Resistant to the missionary efforts of the German bishoprics, the Bohemians were more receptive to the Christian message delivered through <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/moravia.html" target="_blank">Moravia</a> by the Greek monks <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/cyril-and-methodios.html" target="_blank">Cyril and Methodios</a>. <br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195386647/ref=as_li_ss_il?imprToken=jYyT1.uWcOTJuf3RhMn29g&slotNum=1&ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=8e7ed36b4d993472c32fb06142ad13f4&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0195386647&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0195386647" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0521786959/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=e61d2bb64619d7dcbd7c6105808a97ee&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0521786959&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0521786959" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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In 873 Methodios baptized the Bohemian duke Borioj, leading to the rapid conversion of the Bohemians to Christianity. Continued disagreement in the Bohemian court about the degree of German influence led to the murder of Duke Václav (St. Wenceslas) by his brother Bolesław I in 935. <br />
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Under Bolesław I and his son, Bolesław II, Bohemian rule expanded to include Moravia, Silesia, and part of southeastern <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/poland.html" target="_blank">Poland</a>. The establishment of the bishopric of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1612384986/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1612384986&linkId=ca967b35390789250d5703c138ac5e6c" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Prague</a> secured ecclesiastical independence. At Bolesław II’s death, the kingdom was split by civil war among his sons Bolesław III, Jaromir, and Ulrich and lost territory to Bolesław I (the Brave) of <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/poland.html" target="_blank">Poland</a>. <br />
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In 1003–04, with Bohemian support, the Polish king briefly established his brother Vladivoj in Prague and consented to his vassalage to the German emperor as duke of Bohemia. This arrangement continued after Vladivoj’s death, though Premyslid rule of Bohemia was restored.<br />
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Under Bretislav I (1037–55), Bohemia recovered Moravia and Silesia, and the Bohemian nobles accepted hereditary rule in the Premyslid dynasty. Bretislav’s son Vratislav supported <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/henry-iv-king-of-germany.html" target="_blank">Henry IV</a> in the investiture struggle with Pope Gregory VII, obtaining recognition as king of Bohemia in return (1086).<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/book-of-dead.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Bretislav I" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaQmiVrum7_ICzCtGhoKGRm4yqhwmhu-ydyqdhs-bJpM0_krt9CdsNCzbhB3MAoGACcaJaF4nt-iWLgdkEBz_hUdLGEPfnTBz6vxeu31RGhQfjx3TRTduoESg2e3iJ7oRWVBtpRQoErgas/s1600/Bretislav-1.jpg" title="Bretislav I" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bretislav I</td></tr>
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Emperor <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/frederick-i.html" target="_blank">Frederick I Barbarossa</a> made the title hereditary in 1156 as a condition for Vladislav (Ladislaus) II’s participation in his Italian campaigns. Vladislav II’s abdication in 1173 was followed by an extended struggle for the crown. <br />
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In this conflict, the nobles gained power at the expense of the contesting royal candidates, who were obliged to extend new privileges in exchange for continued support. German influence, too, increased in the absence of a strong and independent Bohemian monarch. In 1197 Otokar I defeated his rivals and emerged as the unchallenged ruler, reestablishing the sovereignty of the Bohemian king.<br />
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The medieval kingdom of Bohemia reached a height of power under <b>Premysl Otokar II</b>. Otokar II’s rule began with a brief struggle against his father, Václav I, followed by a reconciliation and orderly succession. During his reign he sought to reduce the influence of the nobles by encouraging the immigration of German settlers to towns to which he gave legal privileges.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/emperor-diocletian.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Premysl Otokar II" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsa6Pz9Vlc0mnte5nUvOqX_WmeeEy-vI4Z6QshFYMxqqkFX0nXWu-9uNlTjlxAXa_F-Lei6c9b6WbBl48Yc0Hy-ed-fS9hd-Yug7_3FBipgHkt3iBdZE0wTqlnEZmeLvvYjs4aRB7jkAZm/s1600/Otokar-2.jpg" title="Premysl Otokar II" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Premysl Otokar II</td></tr>
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Otokar II also extended Bohemian rule over much of central Europe, through possession of the Austrian archduchies and the counties of Carinthia, Istria, and Styria. In 1260 he defeated Hungarian King Béla IV, his most serious rival. Otokar faced a stronger enemy in the first Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph I, who reclaimed for the empire most of Otokar’s possessions outside Bohemia. <br />
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At Dürnkrut in 1278 Rudolph’s army defeated the Bohemian and Moravian forces; Otokar II was killed in the battle, leaving the kingdom to his seven-year-old son, Václav II. After a troubled regency during which the nobles again asserted their independence from the central authority of the crown, Václav II assumed personal rule in 1290. <br />
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Under his rule, order was restored in the countryside and Bohemia regained a measure of its earlier power, subjugating Poland and intervening in the succession struggle that followed the death of András III of Hungary. Václav II died in 1305 while preparing for war with Archduke Albrecht of Austria (later Holy Roman Emperor), and his son Václav III was assassinated the following year, ending the Premyslid dynasty.<br />
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<tr><td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0789327538/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=7d451d2bf4352ced65f0369d635b0ae7&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0789327538&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=0789327538" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/England-Bohemia-Communication-Cambridge-Literature-ebook/dp/B007NH4FKO/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=d970457549007efbf9384008a25b407d&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B007NH4FKO&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=B007NH4FKO" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0813215706/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=61f9e04dd90e6676c4f363a54c47d930&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0813215706&Format=_SL160_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li2&o=1&a=0813215706" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td></tr>
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A brief succession of royal candidates followed, with the Bohemian estates insisting on their right to elect the king, over the objections of Emperor Al brecht who declared the throne vacant and awarded the crown to his son Rudolf. <br />
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The new king died within the year, followed by his father, but the Bohemian candidate, Duke Henry of Carinthia, proved to be unpopular and after a short reign was deposed by the estates in 1310. His replacement was John of Luxemburg, the husband of Václav II’s daughter Elizabeth and the son of the new emperor, <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/henry-vii.html" target="_blank">Henry VII</a>. <br />
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John spent little time in the kingdom during his long reign, preferring to involve himself in wars throughout western Europe. In his absence, the power of the wealthiest nobles and the church increased, leading to frequent feuds among the Bohemian nobles and towns. In 1346, aged and blind, John died fighting for France in the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1843833069/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1843833069&linkId=304c33014d1ab3780f2d5a16491b2738" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Battle of Crécy</a>.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2012/05/nat-turner.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Emperor Sigismund" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg87-CuMUuQOinB3rGtkFF6CvBhzJHX30mZWIk02k_lgmQ9r8vxcDFtl8jrMnGl1EUtlxy9swipUcOT2WoTITMh3iNCUfH3uzZiPYBWQpL_kg-SP4j-vnaBTqGxgtBeNcWbF7CXtAE4TCfd/s1600/Emperor-Sigismund.jpg" title="Emperor Sigismund" width="470" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Emperor Sigismund</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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His son, Emperor <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/8024631326/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=8024631326&linkId=7b7e3020016315c3ed4da72cfc1ef531" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Charles IV</a>, succeeded him. Unlike his father, Charles devoted considerable attention to his Bohemian possessions, making Prague his chief residence. He founded the University of Prague and built the landmark bridge across the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B002WMQYKO/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B002WMQYKO&linkId=689078f92e3130a57cb7b7673304ced2" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Vltava River</a>, both of which bear his name. <br />
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Charles’s extended presence in the country restored order, though the king was ultimately unsuccessful in reforming the kingdom’s laws in the face of powerful resistance by the nobility. He rejected his father’s support of France and opened closer relations with England, leading to scholarly exchanges between Prague and Cambridge. Charles promoted the early activities of religious reformers, including the popular preacher Ján Milíc of Kromeríž, laying the groundwork for subsequent theological debate.<br />
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The reign of Charles’s son Václav IV was marked by a gradual decline in the authority of the crown and increasing tensions between the church and nobles on the one hand and religious reformers, lesser nobility, and townsmen on the other. Václav’s weak efforts to retain his authority provoked further disputes, leading to the formation of a baronial party led by his cousin Jobst of Moravia. <br />
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The barons twice captured the king and forced him to renounce his centralizing policies, which he quickly restored under pressure from the towns and gentry. Relations with the church were threatened by the execution of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01CK8RHK0/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B01CK8RHK0&linkId=c5cf264f281f0d2b540435485c4ffc0e" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">John of Nepomuk</a>, the vicar of the archbishop of Prague, and Václav’s support for religious reformers led by <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/john-huss.html" target="_blank">John Huss</a>, a master of theology at the University of Prague. <br />
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Huss and his colleagues and followers condemned the immorality of the clergy and the worldliness of the church authorities. Called by the church to recant certain of his teachings, Huss refused and was brought before <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/the-council-of-constance.html" target="_blank">the Council of Constance</a> under a safe passage granted by Václav’s brother, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00B3BBVJO/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=B00B3BBVJO&linkId=df33dbe49dd78803b410e7d246e05d61" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Emperor Sigismund</a>.<br />
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The trial and execution of Huss by the council in 1415 provoked popular unrest in the kingdom In July 1419 a public procession of Huss’s adherents in Prague led to a riot in which the magistrates of the new town were thrown from the windows of the town hall (the Defenestration of Prague). Václav died soon after, and Sigismund claimed the crown, leading a crusade against the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1848325169/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=1848325169&linkId=3f6b65ab0cae98ae1dd320c708389bb7" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Hussites</a> in 1420.<br />
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Sigismund failed in this and in a second attempt in 1422. In subsequent crusades the Hussites easily defeated their enemies and even took the offensive, launching raids into Hungary and neighboring German states. Convinced of the impossibility of conquering Bohemia by force, Sigismund agreed to negotiations with the Hussites at the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/9004222642/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=epichistory-20&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=as2&creativeASIN=9004222642&linkId=efd82d07a197c903f02e042e0186db8c" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Council of Basel</a> in 1431. <br />
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A split within the Hussite movement between moderates and radicals ended in 1434 with the victory of the moderate party at the Battle of Lipany. This opened the path to a settlement with Sigismund and the church, by which the emperor was recognized by the Hussites as king of Bohemia. Hussites were granted religious concessions by the council in return, ending the Hussite wars. Sigismund died in 1437, ending the reign of the Luxemburg dynasty in Bohemia.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-31504175895090847702013-10-12T21:12:00.002+07:002016-11-07T21:48:32.155+07:00Blanche of Castile<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/alfred-great.html" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Blanche of Castile" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvlF_yGshpBT-xxZgVqVQvwMGoT0GSQzdNDTW-OAM07W2lRQtSmRSax6lc2lrkjLSkH4KdPl8wYPXHHaf74T3jQH6ci9dK6B4Kwn2t8g-GE-O-stPfQLG_mDXsg-aZFmh6R67LPazqtvzF/s1600/Blanche-Castile.jpg" title="Blanche of Castile" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Blanche of Castile</td></tr>
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Blanche was born in Palencia, present-day Spain, the third daughter of Alfonso VIII, the king of Castile, and Eleanor, daughter of English king Henry II and Queen <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/eleanor-of-aquitaine.html" target="_blank">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a>. She married Louis VIII (1187–1226) of France, the son of <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/philip-ii-augustus.html" target="_blank" title="Philip II Augustus">Philip II</a> (1165–1223) of France, on May 23, 1200 at Portmouth, in English territory, as part of a treaty between Philip and King John of England (1167–1216). <br />
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The aging Queen Eleanor (1122–1204), her maternal grandmother, personally escorted the vivacious Blanche to France. John granted to Blanche as fiefs Gracay and Issoudun, as well as some English Crown lands. Blanche and Louis had 12 children over an 18-year period, but six children died. Their son <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/louis-ix.html" target="_blank" title="Louis IX">Louis IX</a> (1214–70) was the heir to the French throne and was later canonized as Saint Louis because of his pious and kind-hearted nature.<br />
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While waiting for the French crown, Louis claimed the English crown in Blanche’s name and she offered him her avid support, although Philip dissented. Blanche worked tirelessly and organized the invasion from Calais. Louis’s invasion of England was initially well received by the barons, but he later received only scant support from the other inhabitants. <br />
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It was also unsuccessful because King John died, and after 18 months the novelty wore off and most people offered allegiance to young King Henry III (1206–72). The Treaty of Lambeth ended Louis’s English adventure. Louis was crowned on July 14, 1223. <br />
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He became ill with dysentery upon his return to Paris from the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/albigensian-crusade.html" target="_blank">Albigensian Crusade</a> that he had quelled and died at Montpensier on November 8, 1226. Blanche was left to act as regent for 12-year-old Louis, and she served as legal guardian of the other children.<br />
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Seeing an opportunity, the barons and the counts of Champagne, Brittany, and LaMarche (to name a few) revolted against Blanche’s somewhat suppressive hand, secretly aided by Henry. With astounding capability Blanche broke up the league of barons. <br />
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She also repeatedly repelled assaults by Henry III, who fought to have lands obtained by Philip returned to England. Blanche forced Robert de Sorbon (1201–74), founder of the University of Paris, to accept her authority. Blanche also extended French territory by adding the area of the Midi to the Crown lands, and made beneficial alliances.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/abbasid-dynasty.html" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Coronation of Louis VIII and Blanche of Castille" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5vHaSkdCHwZOmheTYA-VBAav71dpcafX9eP2jc7-yBIBX7AibfK4RPb7_7FRf2r3OACveR7hSnTKXDAP1I846GsR0iOlNffgd4fu4UikT68ygEVk_z8ZLGvTDoJgu9zhnxIgP6EFSrk7A/s1600/Coronation-Castille.jpg" title="Coronation of Louis VIII and Blanche of Castille" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Coronation of Louis VIII and Blanche of Castille</td></tr>
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Upon Louis’s service on the Seventh Crusade, Blanche served as regent from 1248 until 1250, when she served as co-regent with her son Alphonse until 1252. Blanche helped raise the exorbitant ransom for Louis’s release from prison in the Holy Land. Her influence on Louis remained strong until her death. <br />
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Blanche’s health failed on November 1252 at Melun. She was moved to Paris but died soon thereafter and was buried at Maubuisson. Blanche is remembered as one of the most capable rulers of the Middle Ages. Saint Louis, known in history as the best of France’s medieval monarchs, was aided during his reign by Blanche’s advice and determination.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-39008458562352634052013-10-12T21:11:00.000+07:002018-09-19T09:24:24.756+07:00Bulgarian Empire<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/ahmed-sukarno.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Bulgarian Empire" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYVZ5ONdoifXF7Sph7vvBS9lsUOUbMWQ2weWwjvkyeA1Vv3tM9weZ1f7K7UQu6hc9nriLXQsHeTKEUyWr6WcX3ErIxulfrynxkWcrO90Zq8Di684T3drgt5PaYjRDV2Bbw3xY-uBeULBZ0/s1600/First-Empire.gif" title="Bulgarian Empire" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bulgarian Empire</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
The origins of the Bulgarian Empire are usually traced to the Bulgaro-Slavic state established by an alliance between the Bulgar Khan Asparuh and the league of the seven Slavic tribes around 679. Although this state had been founded within the bounds of the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/political-history-of-byzantine-empire.html" target="_blank">Byzantine Empire</a>, Emperor Constantine IV was compelled to make a treaty with Asparuh in 681, which acknowledged the existence of the Bulgaro-Slavic state and agreed to pay it an annual tribute. <br />
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Slavs made up an overwhelming part of the population of the new state, but its leadership was Bulgar. What differentiated the Bulgars from the Slavs, apart from language and ethnicity, was their highly developed sense of political organization, in addition to a formidable military reputation. The assimilatory processes between the two groups were long and not always smooth, but by the 10th century the Slavic language had become the official language of the state, while Bulgarian became its official appellation.<br />
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The study of the Bulgarian Empire is generally divided into two periods: the First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018) and the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1393). In both periods, the Bulgarian Empire had to contend with external pressures coming from Byzantium in the south and various migratory invaders from the north, as well as domestic dissent among the aristocracy.<br />
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<b>The First Bulgarian Empire</b><br />
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Initially the First Bulgarian Empire enjoyed almost a century of expansion. After Asparuh’s death, supreme power passed to Khan Tervel (700–721). He not only continued to expand the new state in the Balkans but also intervened in the internal affairs of Byzantium. Tervel sheltered the exiled Emperor Justinian II and assisted him to regain his throne in <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/constantinople.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Constantinople</a> in 704. In 716 Tervel forced a treaty on Byzantium, which awarded northern Thrace to Bulgaria and reiterated Constantinople’s annual tribute. <br />
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Because of this treaty, Tervel came to the aid of Byzantium during the Arab siege of the town in 717, crucial to averting the fall of Constantinople. Tervel’s attack surprised the Arab forces, and many of them were slaughtered (some count 100,000). After Tervel’s death the remainder of the eighth century was a time of internal strife, until the rule of Khan Kardam (777–802). <br />
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Kardam inflicted a number of severe defeats on the Byzantine army and in 796 forced Constantinople to renew its annual tribute to Bulgaria. It was Kardam’s successor Khan Krum (803–814) who achieved one of the greatest expanses of the First Bulgarian Empire.<br />
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Krum is believed to have spent his youth establishing his authority over large swaths of modern-day Hungary and Transylvania. When he became khan, Krum added these territories to Bulgaria. Thus his realm stretched from Thrace to the northern Carpathians and from the lower Sava River to the Dniester, and bordered the Frankish Empire of <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/charlemagne.html" target="_blank">Charlemagne</a> along the river Tisza. Krum’s expansionist policy brought him into conflict with Byzantium. <br />
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In 809 he sacked the newly fortified town of Serdica (present-day Sofia) and surged into the territory of Macedonia. The imperial army destroyed the Bulgarian capital at Pliska. Krum, however, besieged the Byzantine troops in a mountain pass, where most of them were massacred. Emperor Nikephoros I lost his life, and Krum ordered that Nikephoros’s skull be encrusted in silver and used it as a drinking cup. <br />
<br />
After his military <a href="http://marketingatoz.blogspot.com/2011/04/success-and-failure.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">success</a> Krum unleashed a total war against Byzantium, laying waste to most of its territory outside the protected walls of Constantinople. He died unexpectedly in 814 in the midst of preparations for an attack on the metropolis.<br />
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The emphasis on Krum’s military prowess often neglects his prescience as state-builder. He was the first Bulgarian ruler that began centralizing his empire by providing a common administrative and legal framework. His son Khan Omurtag (r. 814–831) followed his father in further consolidating the state. Omurtag’s main achievement was to improve the legal system developed by Krum. He was also an avid builder of fortresses.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2012/01/taliban.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Bulgarian army" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHEc3Ui66jy1oZTJuUsnXmrQdxbcK1GGSvt4Zeri68aTNu2Rf92_Xzu4gvizkLdbH8Q2IA169yR7NmS0g3R6gvyCzHodjHn8GXq2Lt8vcVl4m1zGmEWQsISfC8shna_e6on46THLCsEPsi/s1600/Bulgarian-army.jpg" title="Bulgarian army" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bulgarian army</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
Under Omurtag’s successors, Malamir (r. 831–836) and Pressian (r. 836–852), the First Bulgarian Empire penetrated further into Macedonia. Their reign, however, saw an increase in the internal crisis of the state because of the spread of Christianity. Both the Slavs and the Bulgars practiced paganism, but a large number of the Slavs had begun converting to Christianity. <br />
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However, the Bulgars and especially their boyars (the aristocracy) remained zealously pagan. Krum and, in particular, Omurtag became notorious for their persecution of Christians. A new era in the history of the First Bulgarian Empire was inaugurated with the accession of Khan Boris (r. 852–888). <br />
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Boris confronted the social tensions within his state as a result of the distinct religious beliefs of the population. In 864 he accepted Christianity for himself and his country. With this act, Boris increased the cohesion of his people. Internationally he also ensured the recognition of his empire, as all the powers of the day were Christian.<br />
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In 888 Boris abdicated and retired to a monastery. The throne passed to his eldest son, Vladimir (r. 889–893), who immediately abandoned Christianity and reverted to paganism, forcing Boris to come out of his retirement in 893. He removed and blinded Vladimir and installed his second son, Simeon, to the throne. <br />
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The reign of Simeon the Great (893–927) is known as a golden age. Simeon extended the boundaries of the Bulgarian Empire west to the Adriatic, south to the Aegean, and northwest to incorporate most of present-day Serbia and Montenegro. <br />
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He besieged Constantinople twice, and Byzantium had to recognize him as basileus (czar, or emperor); the only other ruler to whom Constantinople extended such recognition was the Holy Roman Emperor. In order to indicate the break with the pagan past, Simeon moved the Bulgarian capital from Pliska to nearby Preslav. In Preslav, Bulgarian art and literature flourished with unprecedented brilliance.<br />
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Despite these exceptional developments, Simeon’s reign was followed by a period of political and social decay. His son Petar (927–970) was involved in almost constant warfare; the nobility was engaged in factionalist strife, and the church fell to corruption. The general corrosion of the state was reflected by the spread of heresies among the Bulgarians. <br />
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By the end of the 10th century the Bulgarian Empire was in rapid decline. In 971 the capital, Preslav, and much of eastern Bulgaria was conquered by Byzantium. Under the leadership of Czar Samuil (997–1014), Bulgaria had a momentary resurgence, with the capital moving to Ohrid. Under Samuil the country expanded into present-day Albania, Montenegro, and parts of Thrace. <br />
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However, in 1014 Emperor Basil II “Bulgaroktonus” (the Bulgarian-slayer) captured 15,000 Bulgarian troops and blinded 99 out of every 100; the remainder were left with one eye to guide their comrades back to their czar. When Samuil saw his blinded soldiers he immediately died. By 1018 the last remnants of Bulgarian resistance were quashed and the First Bulgarian Empire came to an end.<br />
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<b>The Second Bulgarian Empire</b><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/edict-of-caracalla.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="Second Bulgarian empire" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2rbXUQId2Mf426S63T0rWoyTGNsNODUz7bHlgsgM0drDGqbuMs4vRi84FWERMeus5B7k_EE8dmn6uUCmbyb9gcgYe3MX-uhqG9dkewck9k_7JcPvNwTnx12fHkzv7hI8HqxuNjVl9au8P/s1600/Second-Bulgarian.jpg" title="Second Bulgarian empire" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Second Bulgarian empire</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
The Bulgarian state disappeared until 1185, when the brothers Petar and Asen organized a rebellion against Byzantium. The revolt initiated the Second Bulgarian Empire, whose capital became Turnovo (present-day Veliko Turnovo). In a pattern that became characteristic of the reconstituted state, first Asen and then Petar were assassinated by disgruntled boyars. It was their youngest brother, Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207), who managed to introduce temporary stability to Bulgaria. <br />
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At the time, most of the troubles in the Balkans were coming from the crusaders. In 1204 they captured Constantinople and proclaimed that the Bulgarian czar was their vassal. Offended, Kaloyan marched against the armies of the Fourth Crusade and defeated them in a battle near <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/battle-of-adrianople.html" target="_blank">Adrianople</a> (present-day Edirne).<br />
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Kaloyan captured Emperor Baldwin and took him as prisoner to his capital, Turnovo, where he died. The Bulgarian forces also decapitated the leader of the Fourth Crusade, Boniface. Kaloyan himself was assassinated shortly afterwards, by dissident nobles, while besieging Thessalonica.<br />
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After Kaloyan, Boril took the throne (1207–18). In 1218 the son of Asen, Ivan Asen II, returned from exile and deposed Boril. His reign (1218–41) saw the greatest expansion of the Second Bulgarian Empire which reached the Adriatic and the Aegean. <br />
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Besides his military successes, Ivan Asen II also reorganized the financial system of Bulgaria and was the first Bulgarian ruler to mint his own coins. After his death, decline quickly set in. The external sources for this decay were the Mongol onslaught of Europe and the rise of Serbia as a major power in the Balkans. <br />
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The royal palace in Turnovo saw 13 czars in less than a century. Perhaps the most colorful of those was the swine-herder Ivailo, who rose from a common peasant to the Bulgarian throne. With a band of determined followers, he managed to defeat local detachments of the Mongol Golden Horde and push them across the Danube. In 1277 he entered Turnovo and personally killed the czar. His rule lasted only two years, and he was removed by troops dispatched from <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/constantinople.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Constantinople</a>.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/basil-great.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="_blank"><img alt="The defeat of the anti-Ottoman coalition in the battle of Nicopolis in 1396 was the final blow leading to the fall of the Bulgarian Empire." border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjReQZ3LAwvkZOOjBL8hEAB4kFTRhTIE6B9hsVT4beXiIvJAiKLcU03DI_bcz4RCjb45RjtYyj7HoE1TtW2W56YhsFVAhmergbl-y2RRtwTCJFzkJLPiVJR2c9Gyp2vEWwynCSbretF_S2c/s1600/Nicopol-battle.jpg" title="The defeat of the anti-Ottoman coalition in the battle of Nicopolis in 1396 was the final blow leading to the fall of the Bulgarian Empire." /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The defeat of the anti-Ottoman coalition in the battle of Nicopolis in 1396 <br />
was the final blow leading to the fall of the Bulgarian Empire.</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br />
The end of the Second Bulgarian Empire came during the rule of Czar Ivan Alexander (1331–71). He managed to consolidate the territory of Bulgaria, and the country enjoyed economic recovery. Ivan Alexander was also a great patron of the arts. However, he contributed to the breakup of the Bulgarian realm. He separated the region of Vidin from the Bulgarian monarchy and set up his eldest son, Ivan Stratsimir, as a ruler there. <br />
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He proclaimed the son from his second marriage, Ivan Shishman, as the inheritor of the Bulgarian throne. As czar, Ivan Shishman (1371–93) fought a losing battle both against the <a href="http://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/ottoman-empire-12991453.html" target="_blank">Ottoman</a> Turks and against the breakaway ambitions of Bulgarian boyars. Turnovo fell to the Ottomans in 1393, and three years later Vidin also succumbed, causing the end of the Second Bulgarian Empire.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-27503259529612703422013-10-12T21:03:00.002+07:002016-08-24T17:26:14.252+07:00Bulgar Invasions<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/environmental-problems.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Bulgar Invasions" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh__0rrt3iKa9khNwEdAPfW5LRnHVnBYWb2YFSrNEE9Lr80xNdQFWmkt1cOQkLuXXrQJ0YuYndizThmD99z3EOVyCc9pSptGyC8QUDQ3ntpXj5fCQJQAK8pWHBGFpUBxfaKwgHQDoAI3EiL/s1600/Bulgar-Invasions.jpg" title="Bulgar Invasions" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bulgar Invasions</td></tr>
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The earliest records of Bulgar invasions in Europe come from the fifth century. In 481 Emperor Zeno employed Bulgar mercenaries against the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/ostrogoths-and-lombards.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Ostrogoths</a> who had invaded the Danubian provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire. During the reign of Emperor Anastasius (491–518), the Bulgars made several incursions into Thrace and Illyricum. <br />
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During the sixth century the Bulgars raided the Balkan Peninsula twice, and in 568 hordes of them surged into Italy from central Europe. Further invasions of Bulgars into present-day Italy took place around 630. At the time, the bulk of Bulgar invasions were focused on the lands of Byzantium south of the Danube River.<br />
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The original homeland of the Bulgars was somewhere between the northern coast of the Caspian Sea and the expanses of Central Asia and China. The name “Bulgar” is of Turkic origin—from the word Bulgha, which means “to mix.” This derivation underlines the complex ethnic makeup of the Bulgars and suggests that they were a hybrid people with a Central Asian, Turkic, or Mongol core combined with Iranian elements. <br />
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<td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1782000798/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=1782000798&linkCode=as2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=VSW5YTRVDAHG5JN7" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1782000798&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&l=as2&o=1&a=1782000798" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/184176809X/ref=as_li_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=390957&creativeASIN=184176809X&linkCode=as2&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=I3TQCHYTK4VTKZ6L" rel="nofollow"><img border="0" src="http://ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=184176809X&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20" /></a><img alt="" border="0" src="http://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&l=as2&o=1&a=184176809X" height="1" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td>
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The Bulgars were stockbreeders, who chiefly raised horses. The Bulgar army was dominated by its fast-moving cavalry. It is often argued that the semilegendary leader of the Bulgars, Avitokhol, who allegedly commanded them into Europe, was none other than Attila the Hun (406–453).<br />
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During the sixth century the Bulgars consolidated much of their European possessions into a state called Great Bulgaria, which extended over the North Caucasian steppe and what is now Ukraine. The capital of this state was at Phanagoria (modern-day Taman in Russia). <br />
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The leader of Great Bulgaria was Khan Kubrat (c. 585–650). After his death his five sons divided the Bulgar tribes and continued invading European territories. The eldest son, Baian, remained in Great Bulgaria. The second son, Kotrag, crossed the river Don and settled on its far side. <br />
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The descendants of either Kotrag’s or Baian’s Bulgars (or both) are reputed to be the founders of Volga Bulgaria in the eighth century, which is considered to be the cultural and ethnic predecessor of the present-day Tatarstan in the Russian Federation. Kubrat’s fourth son, Kubert, moved to Pannonia and later settled in the area of present-day Transylvania. The fifth son, Altchek, moved on to Italy and took Pentapolis, near Ravenna.<br />
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Kubrat’s third son, Khan Asparuh (644–701), moved his part of the Bulgar tribes in southern Bessarabia and established himself on an island at the mouth of the river Danube. From there he began attacks against the territory of Byzantium. By that time, Slavs had colonized most of the territory of the Balkan Peninsula. Asparuh entered into an alliance against Byzantium with the league of the seven Slavic tribes, which occupied the territory between the Danube and the Balkan mountain range. <br />
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Soon the Bulgars began settling in the territory south of the Danube River. Around 679 a Bulgaro-Slavic state was formed with its center at Pliska (in modern-day northern Bulgaria). Under the leadership of Asparuh the new state defeated the armies of Emperor Constantine IV in 680. This forced Byzantium to recognize the existence of an independent Bulgaro-Slavic state within the territory of its empire in 681. <br />
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Although the Bulgar invasions were to continue in the following decades, these became wars for the establishment and enlargement of the new Bulgaro-Slavic state. The Bulgaro-Slavic state established by Asparuh grew into the Bulgarian Empire and became the predecessor of modern-day Bulgaria.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-17700217289343367762013-10-12T21:01:00.003+07:002019-01-26T09:30:55.605+07:00Boniface<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/berlin-blockadeairlift.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Boniface" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixhB_ONGUPUNM9kF-bsWj6SF8a0xuneLR2K-LSHFLGijAFmf1kfz18dcBXSd8tosQdDOW2gibBJVUd4QPYnOkG69_qt3XiLLl1YoDAc9Bs99v5tJeynrHTfOyL0ubEt9eCzyCdg1wXvrHr/s1600/Boniface.jpg" title="Boniface" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Boniface</td></tr>
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Known as the Apostle of the Germans, Saint Boniface was educated in England under the influence of Benedictine monasteries in the late seventh century. He could have followed in the steps of the Venerable Bede, so polished was his Latin, but the monks instilled in him a zeal for spreading the Christian faith to the European continent, in the throes of the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1973427370/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=6513b9979ebdb3266b4c3c70905412a8&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Dark Ages</a>. He, along with many <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/anglo-saxon-kingdoms.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Anglo-Saxon</a> and Irish missionaries, brought back to Europe a semblance of religion, education, and culture before the emergence of <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/charlemagne.html" target="_blank">Charlemagne</a> and the <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/06/holy-roman-empire.html" target="_blank">Holy Roman Empire</a>.<br />
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His missionary career had three phases, punctuated by visits to <a href="https://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/founding-of-rome.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Rome</a> for consultation and patronage. First, the pope delegated him for work over a broad area, and he targeted Frisia, Hesse, and Thuringia (719–735). Second, he received a special papal commission to penetrate Germany, and he concentrated on Bavaria for establishing monasteries (738–742). <br />
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Third, he settled in the western part of the <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2013/10/frankish-tribe.html" target="_blank">Frankish</a> territory (742–747), where he organized the church and encouraged accountability and training for its leaders. As an old man, he retired from his official duties and pioneered again as a simple missionary to Frisia on the German coast of the <a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B075VHTSZ5/ref=as_li_ss_tl?ie=UTF8&linkCode=ll1&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=34e0a5d95f62c6ea79320544a28204b0&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">North Sea</a>. Here he encountered fierce opposition from the natives, who martyred him along with 53 of his companions in 754.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0231120931/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=fd82841cac09e1e5c43c172ab6794518&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=0231120931&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=0231120931" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1499321228/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=97d0a50a7a8964ef257f03c4076d9e54&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1499321228&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=1499321228" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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Early on in his career (722) he gained advantages for his missionary program because of Charles Martel and his line. He had won their guarantees for safety during a time of constant invasion and <a href="https://inamericanhistory.blogspot.com/2013/06/domestic-terrorism.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">terrorism</a> by marauding tribes. In his initial work in Frisia legend has it that he cut down the sacred oak tree of Thor, and when no adverse reaction occurred, the locals flocked to him. <br />
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One of his most famous monasteries was the Abbey of Fulda, founded to consolidate the gains he had made in Bavaria. Fulda was put directly under the pope, and for centuries it was the center of German religious and intellectual life. Here Boniface’s body was transported and buried. It is the site for the German Conference of <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Catholic-Bishops-United-States-Leadership-ebook/dp/B07KKKTDNN/ref=as_li_ss_tl?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=ll1&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=9a42fdf27b0c2ad84471984c7f27645d&language=en_US" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Catholic Bishops</a>.<br />
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Boniface epitomizes the return of civilization to Europe in several respects. First, he represents centralized discipline and accountability by his emphasis on unity with the Roman pontiff. It must be remembered that the people had long since seen the demise of the <a href="https://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/02/roman-empire.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Roman Empire</a>, and there was as yet no overarching political structure to unite the disparate towns and regions. <br />
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Second, he represents culture by his embracing the Benedictine ideals of literacy and art in all of his monasteries. Again, the classical notion of the “good life” had been defunct for many generations, and the output of literary compositions and visual art had diminished considerably.<br />
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Third, he believed that all of his clergy must be educated. Boniface had to drive out rustic church leaders so that the Continental church could cooperate with his bishops and pope. In addition he set up institutions for women, who throughout this period had been denied the privileges of men, and he made education available. <br />
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In his home country of <a href="https://epicworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/07/church-of-england.html" target="_blank">England</a>, it was the custom to train convent leaders (abbesses) to appreciate books and music and art so that they could run their own communities of women. This practice spilled over into Boniface’s mission land of Germany.Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4943055558335917790.post-32994217130443897442013-10-12T21:01:00.001+07:002018-09-19T09:29:17.400+07:00Borobudur<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/08/central-asia-after-1991.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Borobudur" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwOQxjZUy7ykU97QRemhk1xsLrH102btUoGq13WegVg8e_Fdv60_niI3B1B39wkiWgYTsHnqi8NZBdBonudYrXANHTO3m-UOeO0LPpbxfn0Se_IqJ2ino0iqWZsIghD9O73L1Kms4fTg7x/s1600/Borobudur.jpg" title="Borobudur" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Borobudur</td></tr>
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Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in the world, is located in central Java. Surrounded by fertile rice fields and coconut plantations, the Buddhist stupa is located on a small hill above Kedu Plain.<br />
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It was built in 760 to resemble a mountain and was completed in 830. Borobudur is associated with two <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/buddhist-councils.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Buddhist Councils">Buddhist</a> powers—the Sanjaya rulers and the Sailendra dynasty—which displaced the Sanjayas in 780, though the latter regained power in 850. The monument is made from more than a million blocks of stone, each weighing about 100 kilograms. These stones were arduously carried up a hill from a nearby riverbed. <br />
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These blocks of stone were then cut and carved by skilled Javanese craftsmen to form rich artistic depictions of stories familiar to Buddhist pilgrims. These bas-relief panels relate ancient fables, fairytales, and the life of <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/03/gautama-buddha.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>. The panel reliefs were based on earlier Tantric designs.<br />
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<tr> <td align="center"><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Borobudur-Golden-Buddhas-Periplus-Travel-ebook/dp/B00ADPQTWK/ref=as_li_ss_il?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=c56d9824fea4b459fe004413e89dd7b7&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=B00ADPQTWK&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=B00ADPQTWK" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span><span style="padding-left: 7px; padding-right: 7px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1980760918/ref=as_li_ss_il?ie=UTF8&linkCode=li3&tag=epichistory-20&linkId=8a7d9e5f28e54ed3d2ac3d6303576eab&language=en_US" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="//ws-na.amazon-adsystem.com/widgets/q?_encoding=UTF8&ASIN=1980760918&Format=_SL250_&ID=AsinImage&MarketPlace=US&ServiceVersion=20070822&WS=1&tag=epichistory-20&language=en_US" /></a><img alt="" border="0" height="1" src="https://ir-na.amazon-adsystem.com/e/ir?t=epichistory-20&language=en_US&l=li3&o=1&a=1980760918" style="border: none !important; margin: 0px !important;" width="1" /></span></td> </tr>
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The complex meaning of Borobudur is found in deciphering the architecture and the reliefs carved into stone. Borobudur yields multiple layers of meaning rather than one single concept, although the skilful builders managed to combine different elements into a harmonious whole. <br />
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The impressive structure was built in the <a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/01/theravada-and-mahayana-buddhism.html" target="_blank" title="Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana tradition of Buddhism</a>, which focuses on the personal, solitary, ascetic journey to achieve Nirvana. Ancient pilgrims made their way up the stupa to attain spiritual merit. Borobudur has a simple structure, consisting of a series of concentric terraces.<br />
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An aerial view reveals that the Borobudur temple is actually a large mandala, often employed to initiate Buddhists into higher levels of consciousness and spiritual power. As Buddhist pilgrims progress upwards, they are moving through increasingly higher planes of consciousness, with the aim of ultimately attaining Nirvana. In order to achieve enlightenment, pilgrims had to make 10 rounds in the monument.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.com/2012/04/chandragupta-ii.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Borobudur and the surrounding environtment" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMKCE6uRMxOSw5AlloW9SrjnpEJSZJHkW6x3puD3wd5rL0WK50bO16U8S7iSUiZvLBeNa1c_aI4f0RKh009L08Ri2Nnqr2P0l7gL8X173fiL0u9cGWU3cnRYmJtuWYJjAMcZFFp1RU_-F2/s1600/borobudur-surrounding.jpg" title="Borobudur and the surrounding environtment" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Borobudur and the surrounding environtment</td></tr>
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At the summit, there is a large stupa surrounded by 72 smaller stupas. Built to visually stimulate, Borobudur enables pilgrims to forget the outside world, as the visitor walks through enclosed galleries. On the round terraces the pilgrim witnesses a view of surrounding green fields, feeling a sense of elation symbolizing enlightenment, the ultimate aim of such a pilgrimage. <br />
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The awesome structure of Borobudur provides Buddhist pilgrims with physical space to achieve spiritual enlightenment as they pass through 10 stages of development. It was a place to achieve the practical end of becoming a bodhisattva, an exalted being who is actively seeking enlightenment.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://historysome.blogspot.com/2013/06/shirin-ebadi.html" imageanchor="1" rel="nofollow" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" target="blank"><img alt="Aerial view of Borobudur" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhE7aLWYiuLBZMGxNu0FU7dM86jI66OEYrqw-3Z3AJRyDKA5elCj54qwtjQ_aZnNzpA-HlYMZBbvqjAwfn0y9Ot4WYHEHGVsJ0k7djJX0R4WYmW-YALBnh25D2o4rPTLKIx4eg4QwywmPpB/s1600/borobudur-aerial.jpg" title="Aerial view of Borobudur" width="450" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Aerial view of Borobudur</td></tr>
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Ninak Ninukhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07569453473676241887noreply@blogger.com